States of Elements Flashcards Preview

Cadmium has one key crystallographic structure under standard conditions: hexagonal close-packed (hcp).

Indium, much like many other metals is described as being ‘soft’.

This means that it is malleable (able to be reshaped with little force and without cracking or shattering).

Because of the nature of metallic bonding and the delocalised electrons involved, most metals are good conductors of electricity.

This is because delocalised electrons are free-flowing charged particles able to transmit electrical energy from one point to another.

Tin has three key allotropes; white, grey, and rhombic.

The arrangements of atoms in white and grey tin are tetragonal and amorphous respectively.

Below 13 °C, tin converts to its amorphous grey powder form.

Antimony is often classified as having one stable allotrope (white) and three metastable allotropes (yellow, black, and explosive).

Under standard conditions, antimony is found in its most stable, metallic form.

The two major categories of solid substances are crystalline and amorphous.

Some elements may have different allotropes that exist as either of these, such as tellurium, which has a crystalline and a grey amorphous form.

Solids have the lowest average kinetic energy of all the four fundamental states of matter.

Despite being a halogen element, iodine is in fact a solid substance under standard conditions, and appears as shiny and black with a crystalline structure.

Solids have a fixed shape and volume, and so don’t morph like liquids to fit the container they’re in.

Gases are less dense than liquids or solids as they have less particles per unit of volume due to their constant, random motion.

A gas is a substance that has neither a defined volume nor shape.

Group 1 metals, also known as alkali metals, have a stable oxidation state of +1.

This means for each caesium atom in a solid structure, it contributes one delocalised electron.

Caesium’s crystal structure is described as a ‘primitive cubic lattice’.

Group 2 metals, also known as alkaline-earth metals, have a stable oxidation state of +2.

This means for each barium atom in a solid structure, it contributes two delocalised electrons.

Metals such as barium tarnish in air.

This is the thin layer of corrosion that forms on the surface of a metal when its atoms react with surrounding oxygen, forming barium oxide (BaO).

Some metals such as lanthanum rapidly tarnish in air.

This is the thin layer of corrosion that forms on the surface of a metal when its atoms react with surrounding oxygen, forming lanthanum oxide (La₂O₃).

Under these conditions, lanthanum’s crystal structure exists as hexagonal close-packed (hcp).

Some metals such as cerium tarnish easily in air.

This is the thin layer of corrosion that forms on the surface of a metal when its atoms react with surrounding oxygen, forming cerium oxide (CeO₂).

Solids have a fixed shape and volume, and so don’t morph like liquids to fit the container they’re in.

Metals such as praseodymium are described as being ‘soft’.

This relates to the fact that the force required to cause layers of atoms to slide past each other is comparatively lower in these metals.

The majority of metals, like praseodymium, appear to have a ‘silvery’ color due to the fact they do not absorb many wavelengths of incident light and so most of it is reflected instead.

Some metals, such as neodymium, rapidly tarnish in air.

This is the thin layer of corrosion that forms on the surface of a metal when its atoms react with surrounding oxygen, forming neodymium oxide (Nd₂O₃).

Under these conditions, the crystal structure of neodymium is double hexagonal close-packed (dhcp).

Under these conditions, the crystal structure of promethium is double hexagonal close-packed (dhcp).

Solids have the strongest intermolecular (‘between molecules’) forces of all the four fundamental states of matter (solid, liquid, gas, plasma).

The majority of metals, like samarium, appear to have a ‘silvery’ color due to the fact they do not absorb many wavelengths of incident light and so most of it is reflected instead.

Under these conditions, the crystal structure of samarium is rhombohedral.

Some metals such as europium rapidly tarnish in air.

This is the thin layer of corrosion that forms on the surface of a metal when its atoms react with surrounding oxygen, forming europium oxide (Eu₂O₃).

Under these conditions, the crystal structure of europium is body-centred cubic (bcc).

Metals such as gadolinium are described as being ‘soft’.

This relates to the fact that the force required to cause layers of atoms to slide past each other is comparatively lower in these metals.

Under these conditions, the crystal structure of gadolinium is hexagonal close-packed (hcp).

Terbium, much like many other metals is described as being ‘soft’.

This means that it is malleable (able to be reshaped with little force and without cracking or shattering).

Under these conditions, the crystal structure of terbium is hexagonal close-packed (hcp).

The presence of delocalised electrons in a metal allows for the transmission of light (electromagnetic energy) and so solids such as dysprosium appear lustrous.

Under these conditions, the crystal structure of dysprosium is hexagonal close-packed (hcp).

The majority of metals, like holmium, appear to have a ‘silvery’ color due to the fact they do not absorb many wavelengths of incident light and so most of it is reflected instead.

Under these conditions, the crystal structure of holmium is hexagonal close-packed (hcp).

Metals such as erbium are described as being ‘soft’.

This relates to the fact that the force required to cause layers of atoms to slide past each other is comparatively lower in these metals.

Under these conditions, the crystal structure of erbium is hexagonal close-packed (hcp).

Solids have the lowest average kinetic energy of all the four fundamental states of matter.

Under these conditions, the crystal structure of thulium is hexagonal close-packed (hcp).

Ytterbium slowly oxidises in air to form a protective layer of ytterbium oxide (Yb₂O₃).

Under these conditions, unlike many other lanthanide metals, the crystal structure of ytterbium is face-centred cubic (fcc).

Lutetium is described as being a ‘hard’ metal.

This means that it has a higher resistance to surface-level deformation.

Under these conditions, the crystal structure of lutetium is hexagonal close-packed (hcp).

The ability of atoms to slide past one another into new configurations without breaking their metallic bonding gives rise to metals such as hafnium being ductile (able to be drawn into wire).

Hafnium forms a dense oxide film (HfO₂) on its surface that makes it resistant to corrosion.

Tantalum forms an oxide film (Ta₂O₅) on its surface which helps give rise to its extreme corrosion resistant properties in aggressive media.

Under these conditions, the crystal structure of tantalum is body-centred cubic (bcc).

The presence of delocalised electrons in a metal allows for the transmission of light (electromagnetic energy) and so solids such as tungsten appear lustrous.

Under these conditions, the crystal structure of tungsten is body-centred cubic (bcc).

The metallic bond energy of rhenium means that it has the third-highest melting point of all 118 elements, with tungsten being the only other metallic element with a higher value.

The size, mass and arrangement of atoms in a solid determines its density.

Osmium is the most dense metal of the periodic table, but note that density and the relative ‘hardness’ of a metal are two different concepts.

Density is a measure of mass per volume, while hardness is a substance’s ability to resist deformation.

Under these conditions, the crystal structure of osmium is hexagonal close-packed (hcp).

Iridium is described as being a ‘hard’ metal.

This means that it has a higher resistance to surface-level deformation.

Iridium is part of the ‘noble metals’ and so is resistant to oxidation and the effects of many corrosive substances.

This list also includes gold, silver, osmium, rhodium, ruthenium, platinum, and palladium.

Platinum is part of the ‘noble metals’ and so is resistant to oxidation and the effects of many corrosive substances.

This list also includes gold, silver, osmium, rhodium, ruthenium, iridium, and palladium.

Under these conditions, the crystal structure of platinum is face-centred cubic (fcc).

Gold is part of the ‘noble metals’ and so is resistant to oxidation and the effects of many corrosive substances.

This list also includes iridium, silver, osmium, rhodium, ruthenium, platinum, and palladium.

Due to relativistic effects, gold exhibits a yellow coloration unlike the vast majority of metals that are silver instead.

It absorbs wavelengths within the blue color range and reflects those within the yellow range.

The particles within a liquid such as mercury are able to flow freely past each other, but are unable to increase or decrease intermolecular bond distances.

This leads to liquids morphing to fit the container they’re in.

Viscosity and density are the characteristics of a fluid, but there is no direct relation between viscosity and density.

Viscosity is determined by intermolecular forces of attraction, while density is determined by the number of particles per unit volume of a substance.

Metals such as thallium tarnish easily in air.

This is the thin layer of non-protective corrosion that forms on the surface of a metal when its atoms react with surrounding oxygen, known as thallium oxide (Tl₂O, but there are other forms depending on the oxidation state of Tl).

Under these conditions, the crystal structure of thallium is hexagonal close-packed (hcp).

Lead, much like many other metals is described as being ‘soft’.

This means that it is malleable (able to be reshaped with little force and without cracking or shattering), and lead can be worked into sheets.

Under these conditions, the crystal structure of lead is face-centred cubic (fcc).

The reason bismuth appears to have an array of colors (similar to a soap bubble) is due to the oxide layer that forms on its surface.

Otherwise, bismuth is a silver-white metal.

The size, mass and arrangement of atoms in a solid determines its density, and bismuth rates highly on this measure.

Polonium has two key allotropes (α-Po and β-Po), both of which are metallic.

Under standard conditions, it exists in the α-Po form with a cubic crystal structure, and converts to β-Po (rhombohedral) at temperatures above 36 °C.

Because of the nature of metallic bonding and the delocalised electrons involved, most metals are good conductors of electricity.

This is because delocalised electrons are free-flowing charged particles able to transmit electrical energy from one point to another.

The crystal structure of astatine is unknown due to its radioactivity and short half-life.

Solids have a fixed shape and volume, and so don’t morph like liquids to fit the container they’re in.

In an ‘ideal gas’ (a theoretical notion used in calculations), the individual gas molecules exhibit no attractive forces toward each other.

This however is not a practical effect observed in nature.

Gases are less dense than liquids or solids as they have less particles per unit of volume due to their constant, random motion.

Group 1 metals, also known as alkali metals, have a stable oxidation state of +1.

This means for each francium atom in a solid structure, it contributes one delocalised electron.

The extrapolated crystal structure of francium is body-centred cubic (bcc).

Density and the relative ‘hardness’ of a metal are two different concepts.

Density is a measure of mass per volume, while hardness is a substance’s ability to resist deformation.

Under these conditions, the crystal structure of radium is body-centred cubic (bcc), much like other barium and the alkali metals.

Actinium, much like many other metals is described as being ‘soft’.

This means that it is malleable (able to be reshaped with little force and without cracking or shattering).

Under these conditions, the crystal structure of actinium is face-centred cubic (fcc).

The majority of metals, like thorium, appear to have a ‘silvery’ color due to the fact they do not absorb many wavelengths of incident light and so most of it is reflected instead.

Under these conditions, the crystal structure of thorium is face-centred cubic (fcc).

The presence of delocalised electrons in a metal allows for the transmission of light (electromagnetic energy) and so solids such as protactinium appear lustrous.

Under these conditions, protactinium has a body-centred tetragonal lattice structure.

Solids have the lowest average kinetic energy of all the four fundamental states of matter.

Under these conditions, uranium has an orthorhombic crystal lattice structure.

Ionic solids are similar to metallic solids in the sense that they both have crystal lattice structures.

However, ionic solids are made up of alternating anions and cations, while metallic solids comprise metal cations surrounded by a sea of delocalised electrons.

Neptunium is a metallic solid.

Neptunium has a monoclinic crystal structure, meaning it is described by vectors of unequal lengths.

The majority of metals, like plutonium, appear to have a ‘silvery’ color due to the fact they do not absorb many wavelengths of incident light and so most of it is reflected instead.

Plutonium has six different allotropes, lpha (α), beta (β), gamma (γ), delta (δ), delta prime (δ’) and epsilon (ε).

It forms a seventh phase (zeta, ζ) under high temperature and a limited pressure range.

The presence of delocalised electrons in a metal allows for the transmission of light (electromagnetic energy) and so solids such as americium appear lustrous.

Solids have a fixed shape and volume, and so don’t morph like liquids to fit the container they’re in.

Metals such as curium rapidly tarnish in air.

This is the thin layer of corrosion that forms on the surface of a metal when its atoms react with surrounding oxygen.

Under these conditions, the crystal structure of curium is double hexagonal close-packed (dhcp).

The majority of metals, like berkelium, appear to have a ‘silvery’ color due to the fact they do not absorb many wavelengths of incident light and so most of it is reflected instead.

Berkelium has been found to exhibit two stable crystallographic modifications: face-centred cubic (fcc) and double hexagonal closest packed (dhcp).

Ionic solids are similar to metallic solids in the sense that they both have crystal lattice structures.

However, ionic solids are made up of alternating anions and cations, while metallic solids comprise metal cations surrounded by a sea of delocalised electrons.

Californium is a metallic solid.

The two major categories of solid substances are crystalline and amorphous.

Some elements may have different allotropes that exist in either of these forms.

Solids have the lowest average kinetic energy of all the four fundamental states of matter.

Solids have a fixed shape and volume, and so don’t morph like liquids to fit the container they’re in.

Solids have the strongest intermolecular (‘between molecules’) forces of all the four fundamental states of matter (solid, liquid, gas, plasma).

The size, mass and arrangement of atoms in a solid determines its density.

There exists only predictions of mendelevium’s crystal structure as very little has ever been synthesised.

Scientists can only predict the appearance of mendelevium, as only a few atoms of it have ever been produced.

There exists only predictions of nobelium’s crystal structure as very little has ever been synthesised.

Scientists can only predict the appearance of nobelium, as only minute quantities of it have ever been produced.

There exists only predictions of lawrencium’s crystal structure as very little has ever been synthesised.

Scientists can only predict the appearance of lawrencium, as only minute quantities of it have ever been produced.

There exists only predictions of rutherfordium’s crystal structure as very little has ever been synthesised.

It is hypothesised to be hexagonal close-packed (hcp).

Because rutherfordium has only unstable isotopes and so little has ever been produced, its exact chemistry and appearance are unknown.

There exists only predictions of dubnium’s crystal structure as very little has ever been synthesised.

Because dubnium has only unstable isotopes and so little has ever been produced, its exact chemistry and appearance are unknown.

There exists only predictions of seaborgium’s crystal structure as very little has ever been synthesised.

Because seaborgium has only unstable isotopes and so little has ever been produced, its exact chemistry and appearance are unknown.

There exists only predictions of bohrium’s crystal structure as very little has ever been synthesised.

Because bohrium has only unstable isotopes and so little has ever been produced, its exact chemistry and appearance are unknown.

There exists only predictions of hassium’s crystal structure as very little has ever been synthesised.

Because hassium has only unstable isotopes and so little has ever been produced, its exact chemistry and appearance are unknown.

There exists only predictions of meitnerium’s crystal structure as very little has ever been synthesised.

Because meitnerium has only unstable isotopes and so little has ever been produced, its exact chemistry and appearance are unknown.

There exists only predictions of darmstadtium’s crystal structure as very little has ever been synthesised.

Because darmstadtium has only unstable isotopes and so little has ever been produced, its exact chemistry and appearance are unknown.

There exists only predictions of roentgenium’s crystal structure as very little has ever been synthesised.

Because roentgenium has only unstable isotopes and so little has ever been produced, its exact chemistry and appearance are unknown.

There exists only predictions of copernicium’s crystal structure as very little has ever been synthesised.

Because copernicium has only unstable isotopes and so little has ever been produced, its exact chemistry and appearance are unknown.

There exists only predictions of nihonium’s crystal structure as very little has ever been synthesised.

Because nihonium has only unstable isotopes and so little has ever been produced, its exact chemistry and appearance are unknown.

There exists only predictions of flerovium’s crystal structure as very little has ever been synthesised.

Because flerovium has only unstable isotopes and so little has ever been produced, its exact chemistry and appearance are unknown.

There exists only predictions of moscovium’s crystal structure as very little has ever been synthesised.

Because moscovium has only unstable isotopes and so little has ever been produced, its exact chemistry and appearance are unknown.

There exists only predictions of livermorium’s crystal structure as very little has ever been synthesised.

Because livermorium has only unstable isotopes and so little has ever been produced, its exact chemistry and appearance are unknown.

There exists only predictions of tennessine’s crystal structure as very little has ever been synthesised.

Because tennessine has only unstable isotopes and so little has ever been produced, its exact chemistry and appearance are unknown.