______________ science is the study of the mind & intelligence, while ______________ science is the study of the anatomy & physiology of the brain.
Cognitive science / neuroscience
What part of the inner brain resembles a seahorse and is responsible for regulating learning & memory?
hippocampus
What is the cognitive science term for when you think of an answer in your head (rather than just recognizing it on a list of multiple choices)?
active recall
(aka “retrieval practice”)
This is the mental tactic you are using when studying flashcards.
Active recall has been shown to be an order of magnitude more effective than just passive review of your notes, or practicing multiple choice or matching quizzes where all you have to do is “recognize” the right answer.
What is the cognitive science term for reflecting upon your existing knowledge or thought processes?
metacognition
By forcing you to ask yourself “how well did I know this?” on each flashcard, Brainscape is helping you exercise your metacognitive capacities, while deepening your learning in the process.
What is the cognitive science term for spreading successive exposures to a concept across longer and longer intervals of time, to strengthen the memory trace?
spaced repetition
Brainscape automates and personalizes spaced repetition, by using your confidence level in each flashcard to determine its specific interval of repetition.
What is the cognitive science term for that “sweet spot” where you are just at the fringe of your knowledge or skill capacity?
i.e. where you are refreshing existing knowledge just the right amount, while adding new knowledge in just the right -sized increments for your brain to absorb it optimally
the zone of proximal development
(ZOPD)
Brainscape’s study algorithm keeps you in the zone of proximal development by introducing new items only as your cognitive load can handle it, while still repeating your weaker items until they advance to greater confidence
What is the term for new knowledge or skills being “too hard” – due to the fact that there are already too many other “new” concepts in your short-term memory?
cognitive load
Brainscape prevents cognitive load by making it decreasingly likely that a new card is shown, the more “1s” you have rated.
By the time you have rated 7 cards as confidence level 1 (which is the max number of items that the average person can keep in short-term memory), Brainscape will not show any new cards until you’ve moved some of those 1s to higher confidence levels.
What is the cognitive science term for frequently switching between different subjects while studying?
interleaving practice
(or mixed practice)
In Brainscape’s mobile app, the ability to study a mix of flashcards across many subjects, just by tapping a single Study button, is a form of interleaving practice.
Research shows that this type of studying is the most effective way to make knowledge stick, since it “keeps you on your toes”, prevents fatigue in just one part of your brain, and better mimics the unpredictability with which knowledge might actually be thrown at you in the real world.
__________ knowledge is conscious knowledge of facts & concepts that can be verbalized, whereas __________ knowledge involves knowing HOW to do something, like ride a bike, write a paper, or solve complex math problems.
declarative / procedural
Study tools like Brainscape are typically best at helping you dominate the declarative knowledge portion of your learning, and are best combined with practice activities that help you improve the procedural knowledge component (aka “skills”).
The cerebral _______ is the outer layer of the cerebrum (the largest part of the brain), where most complex reasoning takes place.
cortex
Humans have a thicker cortex than other primates and mammals. The “newest” part (i.e. the part that evolved last) – called the neocortex – makes up over 90% of humans’ cerebral cortex.
What are the four lobes of the human brain?
- Frontal
- Parietal
- Occipital
- Temporal
Frontal: reasoning, planning, parts of speech, movement, emotions, problem solving
Parietal: movement, orientation, recognition, perception of stimuli
Occipital: visual processing
Temporal: perception/recognition of auditory stimuli, memory, speech
True or false:
Logical people use more of the left side of their brain, and creative people use more of the right side.
FALSE
This is a myth about brain lateralization. While the location of certain brain functions may vary amongst people, the idea that someone uses one side “more” and is therefore more logical or creative is untrue.
That said, the terms “left-brained” and “right-brained” can still be colloquially useful to describe differences in people’s talents.
What is the name of the effect in which the brain’s adaptive neuronal connections strengthen or weaken depending on the functions needed?
brain plasticity
It was long thought that neurogenesis, or the creation of new brain cells, stopped shortly after birth.
But the theory of neuroplasticity has proven that the brain possesses the remarkable capacity to reorganize pathways, create new connections, and, in some cases, even create new neurons.
For example: A person who has been blinded may devote their old visual brain cells toward the other senses.
True or false:
Humans only use 10 percent of the brain.
FALSE
This myth came about sometime around the end of the 19th or beginning of the 20th century; humans use 100% of the brain.
What are a human’s five basic senses?
- Sight
- Hearing
- Smell
- Touch
- Taste
In addition, some scientists argue that humans have up to dozens of other “senses”, including balance, temperature, hunger, and thirst.
True or false:
If you flip a fair coin 10 times and it lands on heads 10 times, the odds are high that it will land on tails on the 11th flip.
FALSE
This is a common misconception, known as the gambler’s fallacy.
It would be similarly erroneous to think that the coin is more likely to land on heads again, because heads is ‘hot’.
In actuality, the odds are 50/50 that the coin will land on tails, as each flip is independent of the others.
What diagram is depicted in this picture?
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
A psychological theory introduced in 1943 by Abraham Maslow. It details human needs, from the most basic needs of life to more emotional, cognitive needs.
What do psychologists call the ability to recall information in smaller bits?
chunking
For example, we are used to chunking phone numbers into smaller bits – 3 or 4 digit groups.
What is the term for the ability to apply previous learning to new situations?
Transfer (of learning)
There is controversy over whether some skills can transfer across domains. The scientific community remains doubtful.
What three distinct components comprise the mind, according to Sigmund Freud?
- Id
- Ego
- Super-ego
Id: responsible for basic human needs and desires
Ego: conscious, cognitive part of the mind
Super-ego: connection to others and culture
What family of drugs is used to reduce the activity of a certain part of the brain or body?
depressant
The umbrella group “depressant” includes the following substances, among others: Alcohol, Antipsychotics, Antihistamines, Barbiturates, Benzodiazepines, Opioids.
What family of drugs induces alertness or wakefulness, and improves mental or physical functioning?
stimulants
Stimulants are often used to treat ADD and ADHD, as well as narcolepsy and other sleep disorders.
Legal stimulants include caffeine, nicotine, Adderall, and Ritalin.
Illegal stimulants include cocaine, crystal meth, and MDMA (a.k.a. ecstacy).
Which psychological disorder is commonly diagnosed during childhood and is characterized by a lack of self-control and overactivity?
ADHD
(Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder)
Approximately 3-5% of children are diagnosed with ADHD, though researchers believe more children remain undiagnosed.
What is the term used for the loss of memories, such as facts, information and experiences?
amnesia
Anterograde amnesia is the inability to remember new information or events that occurred after the onset of amnesia.
Retrograde amnesia is the inability to remember information or events that occurred before the onset of amnesia.
What is the most common psychological disorder in developed countries?
anxiety
There are five major types of anxiety: Generalized Anxiety Disorder, Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder, Panic Disorder, Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, and Social Phobia.
Treatment for anxiety disorders includes medication and therapy.
What neurodevelopmental disorder appears within the first three years of a child’s life and presents through difficulty with socialization?
autism
Some of the major symptoms associated with autism include:
- Difficulty with social interaction
- Slow development of speaking ability
- Repetition of overheard phrases
- Heightened or decreased sensitivity to external stimuli
- Distress in response to changes in routine
What psychological disorder results in extreme mood swings?
bipolar disorder
Most people living with bipolar disorder are diagnosed by age 25. Approximately 5.7 million American adults have been diagnosed with this disorder.
What neurological condition presents through difficulty reading or writing and is typically first noticed during childhood?
dyslexia
Dyslexic people may confuse similar sounds or letters, reverse letters or words, or completely substitute certain words for others.
Some studies show that nearly 5-10% of the population suffers from varying degrees of dyslexia.
______ is an eating disorder that is characterized by severe food restriction, meaning that a person suffering from this condition hardly eats.
anorexia
Bulimia, on the other hand, is characterized by a cycle of binge eating followed by compensating behaviors such as self-induced vomiting or excessive exercise.
What disorder is characterized by a racing heartbeat, shortness of breath, and fear in situations where such a degree of fear may not be justified?
panic disorder
This disorder is more common in women, likely due to cultural factors. Additional symptoms of panic disorder include nausea, dizziness, weakness, sweating, and chest pain.
A type of anxiety that manifests itself in the form of an extreme fear is called a(n) __\_____.
phobia
Common phobias include:
* arachnophobia (fear of spiders)
* acrophobia (fear of heights)
* agoraphobia (fear of being unable to escape a situation or surrounding).
Which psychological disorder is often characterized by delusions, hallucinations, and disorganized speech or behavior?
schizophrenia
Approximately 24 million people suffer from schizophrenia (about 0.3% - 0.4% of the world population).
Which type of memory is the extension of short-term memory that applies cognitive processes, such as reasoning, to the items currently held in short-term memory?
working memory
Activities such as reading, writing, and solving math problems are all considered to be components of working memory.
A large working memory – which would allow someone to analyze and manipulate larger and more complex topics at once – is a big component of what we would call “intelligence.
During which stage of the sleep cycle does most dreaming occur?
REM sleep
REM is the third stage in your sleep cycle and occurs about every 30-90 minutes throughout the night.
This dream stage is actually very important for learning and memory; it’s when your brain consolidates select short-term memories into long-term memory.
New research shows that some short dreams can also occur during non-REM sleep, and they tend to have a more concrete and logical structure compared to the more chaotic and illogical REM dreams.
What is the name for the electrically excitable cell that is found in the brain and nervous system, and functions to process and transmit impulses through the body?
neuron
A neuron contains a cell body, dendrites, which gather and carry impulses to the cell body, and an axon, which carries information away from the cell body and towards other cells.
When one neuron’s axon meets another’s dendrites, they form a synapse, where they can transmit chemical and electrical signals throughout the chain of neurons in the brain and/or body.
What is the chemical in the brain that transmits signals between neurons?
neurotransmitter
The major six neurontransmitters are: acetylcholine, dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin, GABA, and glutamate.
Neurons communicate with each other via chemical neurotransmitters and via electrical events called ‘action potentials’. An action potential (which happens at the junction between two neurons), causes neurons to release chemical neurotransmitters.
True or false:
Dopamine is the “reward chemical” that your brain produces when achieving a goal.
FALSE
Dopamine is actually what your brain produces when it expects a reward. It is a primary driver of our motivation, and sometimes, when we come to associate a certain activity with pleasure, mere anticipation may be enough to raise our dopamine levels.
Our reward circuits are actually quite complicated and involve many parts of the brain. And dopamine itself is also involved in mood, sleep, and movement in ways neuroscientists still don’t fully understand.
Which hormone and neurotransmitter is also commonly referred to as adrenaline?
epinephrine
Epinephrine is involved in the activation of the sympathetic nervous system and assists in the body’s fight-or-flight response; it works to regulate heart rate, blood pressure, air passage diameters, and metabolic shifts
Norepinephrine (a related hormone; aka noradrenaline) is involved in the body’s fight-or-flight response and the activation of the sympathetic nervous system. It acts to increase heart rate and blood pressure, trigger the release of glucose, and increase blood flow to skeletal muscles.
What is the name of the inhibitory neurotransmitter involved in the regulation of mood, sleep, appetite, and memory?
serotonin
Serotonin is derived from the amino acid tryptophan.
Which 19th-century psychologist famously conditioned his dog to salivate by simply ringing a bell, even if there was no food in sight?
Ivan Pavlov
“Pavlov’s dog” is now used as the textbook example of “behavioral conditioning”, where conditioned responses (e.g. salivation) can be triggered in animals after certain stimuli (e.g. food and bell) are paired over enough successive repetitions.
What are the five tastes humans perceive?
- salty
- sweet
- bitter
- sour
- umami (savory or meaty flavors)
Taste (and its close sibling smell) is our most primitive sense. Over a billion years ago, ancient microorganisms could actually perceive most of the same chemical signals that we can, and even produced some of the same neurotransmitters that make humans “hungry” and motivated to seek food.
In fact, the olfactory bulb in the brain is located directly behind our nasal cavity and in the most primitive part of our brain, closely resembling the olfactory brain mechanics of our lizard ancestors.
It could be that – despite lacking advanced cognition – an iguana experiences the sense of eating something “delicious” with a similar joy, and motivation to eat more, as we do.
Which 20th-century psychologist is known as the father of Behaviorism and developed the operant conditioning chamber?
B.F. Skinner
(1904 – 1990)
B.F. Skinner is also recognized for his contributions to the field of educational psychology, particularly for the teaching machine and the concept of programmed instruction.
In many ways, the habit-forming drill & practice of Brainscape flashcards is inspired by behaviorist research.
But we, of course, encourage users to combine their flashcard studies with their own flashcard creation, sharing, and collaborative studying activities – i.e. to incorporate more constructivist principles into their overall learning experience :)
Which 19-century psychologist is best known for his contributions to educational psychology and reform, and is recognized as a founder of functional psychology?
John Dewey
(1859 – 1952)
John Dewey had a major influence on psychology, education, and philosophy.
His work on progressive education contributed greatly to the use of experimentation instead of the original authoritarian approach to knowledge.
For example, Dewey argued that a curriculum should be relevant to student’s lives.
Which 19th and 20th-century scientist is recognized as the Father of Psychoanalysis and is particularly famous for his analyses of dreams and the subconscious?
Sigmund Freud
(1856 – 1939)
“____ vs ____” is the phrase typically used to describe the controversy over whether behavior is inherited vs. learned from experience.
nature vs nurture
John Locke (1662 - 1704) is best known for implying that all human development is developed from experience, and that infant brains begin with a completely blank slate (“tabula rasa”).
Nowadays, the consensus among psychologists is that both nature and nurture are hugely important in development.
What term is used for an error in speech that is believed to be the result of some unconscious belief or desire?
(Hint: the term derives from the name of a famous psychologist)
Freudian slip
Named after Freud because he’s said to have often interpreted such slip-ups as being more indicative of deep unconscious desires than is probably the case.
An example of a Freudian slip: a child who accidentally calls his teacher “Mom”.
Freud would have a psychoanalytic interpretation for the example above. However, it is more likely to be the child’s transition from spending most of the day with his teacher instead of his mother.
