Which Ancient Greek philosopher, who taught Plato, innovated the teaching method that leads with a question and answer instead of lecturing?
Socrates
Socrates is seen as one of the founders of Western philosophy, particularly as it relates to ethics and logic.
He was condemned to death by the citizens of Athens, who found him guilty of denying the existence of the gods and of corrupting the minds of the Athenian youth.
The socratic teaching method is still heavily used today to clarify and unpack beliefs, support active rather than passive thinking, and improve critical thinking skills.
Which Ancient Greek philosopher founded the Academy in Athens, the Western world’s first institution for higher learning, and wrote the philosophical dialogues The Republic and the Symposium?
Plato
One of the most important figures in Western science and philosophy, he was a student of Socrates and the teacher of Aristotle.
Plato also presented the Allegory of the Cave in his work The Republic, which has become one of the most influential works of political theory and philosophy.
Which Ancient Greek philosopher from the 4th Century BC is known for his surviving treatises: Metaphysics, Politics, Poetics, and Physics?
Aristotle
One of the most important figures in Western philosophy, he wrote on many subjects and his writings and philosophy continue to be studied today.
Aristotle was a student of Plato and served as tutor to Alexander the Great.
Which 6th-century BCE Chinese philosopher founded an eponymous school of philosophy that teaches a code of ethics, which stresses ancestor worship, family relationships, learning, and loyalty?
Confucius
His teachings evolved into Confucianism, which still governs Chinese culture today.
Which 17th-century English philosopher was known as the Father of Classical Liberalism, and made foundational contributions to modern theories of limited, liberal government?
John Locke
(1632-1704)
Locke is often regarded as the founder of a school of thought known as British Empiricism.
He influenced the American Founding Fathers by criticizing the notion of a monarch’s divine right and arguing that governments should depend on the consent of the governed.
He also claimed that the human mind is a blank slate (tabula rasa) at birth and until experience eventually begins to write on it. The tabula rasa theory influenced centuries of research in the field of psychology.
What is the name of a belief system that has more than one god?
polytheism
From what anthropologists have been able to determine, during prehistory humans were polytheistic, attributing divine attributes to the weather, fertility, and the like.
What is the name of the collection of legendary stories associated with or belonging to a particular religious or cultural tradition?
mythology
These stories are usually concerned with deities and explain natural phenomena.
Elements of Greek, Roman, and Norse mythology have heavily influenced Western culture, arts, and literature and remain an important part of Western language and heritage.
Who were the Ancient Greeks’ main deities, who comprised the main gods cast in Homer’s epics and later Greek plays?
the Olympians
Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, Demeter, Ares, Hermes, Hephaestus, Aphrodite, Athena, Apollo, Artemis, Hestia lived atop Mt. Olympus.
There are 12 Olympians in total, though conflicting lists emerge from different historical sources.
The Olympians, lead by Zeus defeated the Titans after 10 years of fierce battles (the Titanomachia) and most Titans were thrown into Tartarus as a result.
In Greco-Roman mythology, who was the god of the sky and thunder?
Zeus
His Roman name was Jupiter and was seen as the ruler of all Olympian gods.
Zeus was married to Hera and was the brother of Hades, Poseidon, Hera, Hestia, and Demeter.
In Greco-Roman mythology, who was the god of the sea and earthquakes?
Poseidon
His Roman name was Neptune and he was married to Amphitrite.
He was the brother of Zeus, Hades, Hera, et al.
In Greco-Roman mythology, who was the god of the Underworld?
Hades
His Roman name was Pluto and he was the brother of Zeus and Poseidon.
Hades was married to Persephone.
He also wielded the helm of darkness, which grants invisibility.
In Greco-Roman mythology, who was the goddess of love and beauty?
Aphrodite
Her Roman name was Venus and, according to legend, was born out of Uranus’ severed genitals, rising from the sea foam.
What was the name of the primary sun god in the Ancient Egyptian pantheon?
Ra
In Ancient Egypt, the pharaoh was Ra incarnate on Earth, and he oversaw a priestly caste that paid homage to gods such as Thoth, Osiris, and Ptah.
Which religion asserts a single Supreme Being called Brahman, but incorporates the worship of several gods that represent Brahman’s different aspects?
Hinduism
Approximately 1 billion people practice Hinduism, the majority residing in the Indian subcontinent.
Hinduism can be traced back as far as 2000 B.C.
It is unique among major world religions in that it has no single founder.
Which body of texts comprises the oldest scriptures of Hinduism?
The Vedas
There are four collections of verses: Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda.
Other important Hindu texts include the Mahabharata and the Ramayana.
Which nontheistic religion was founded in the 6th century B.C. by Siddhartha Gautama and has around 1 billion practitioners as of 2022?
Buddhism
Gautama was a prince born in what is now Nepal, and was regarded as the Supreme Buddha. “Buddha” signifies “enlightened one” or “awakened one”.
Its founder encouraged his disciples to question his authority and follow their own intuitions.
Buddhism worships no central deity and does not regard worldly things as permanent. It also rejects the notion of a permanent soul that exists before birth and persists after death.
What is the term for the head of state and spiritual leader of Tibet?
Dalai Lama
The Dalai Lama is considered to be the current incarnation of a series of Buddhist tulkus, or high-ranking spiritual teachers, who are manifestations of Avalokitesvara (an enlightened being).
The Dalai Lamas continued to act as the main political institution ruling Tibet for over 300 years, until the time of the 14th and current Dalai Lama.
Traditionally, a new Dalai Lama is selected by senior disciples through visions and spiritual signs.
In Buddhism, what is the name for the state of being that’s free from the three fires of ignorance, aversion, and passion?
Nirvana
Nirvana is generally seen as the goal of the Buddhist path.
According to Buddhist beliefs, nirvana can be reached through a lifetime of meditation, mindfulness, and following the Buddhist practices.
In Buddhism and Hinduism, what is the name for the total of one’s good and bad deeds?
karma
Karma will affect both a person’s future and into which kind of future life that person will be reincarnated.
Which Chinese belief system uses the yin and yang as its symbol?
Taoism
Tao literally means “the way”. The yin-yang represents opposites that complement rather than undermine each other.
Today, Taoism is one of five religions officially recognized in China, along with Buddhism, Islam, Protestantism, and Catholicism.
According to Taoist beliefs, what is the name of the life force that flows through any living thing?
Chi
(aka Qi or Ki)
Maximization and control of chi is central to Taoist exercises.
What religion did Jesus Christ practice while he was alive?
Judaism
In fact, the Last Supper was actually a Passover Seder. Jesus was basically seen as a dangerous Jewish prophet until his death and resurrection led his followers to form a new religion based on his life and sacrifice.
What are the two main parts of the Christian Bible?
The Old Testament and the New Testament
The Old Testament is nearly identical to the Hebrew Bible, and includes the creation of the world and writings of the Jewish prophets.
The New Testament consists of 27 books, beginning with the 4 gospels, which narrate the life of Jesus. The remaining books are comprised of stories from after Jesus’ death, letters, and revelations.
What is the name of the rituals that mark important life milestones in the Catholic Church?
Seven Sacraments
The Seven Sacraments are: Baptism, Confirmation, Eucharist, Reconciliation, Anointing of the Sick, Matrimony, and Holy Orders.
What are the three major divisions of Christianity?
- Roman Catholicism
- Eastern Orthodoxy
- Protestantism
Christianity split into Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy in 1054 A.D. Protestants began to split from the Roman Catholics in the 16th century, after the publication of Martin Luther’s Ninety-Five Theses.
Catholicism is the most widely practiced form of Christianity, with about 1 billion followers.
Which 16th-century German religious leader founded Protestantism and called for the formation of a new body of Christians?
Martin Luther
(1483-1546)
A priest of the Roman Catholic Church, he began the Reformation by attacking the Church for allowing the sale of indulgences.
He believed the Church was also opposed to the Bible on the question of justification by grace through faith and the doctrine of transubstantiation.
In Christianity, what doctrine stipulates that God is one, but has multiple forms?
The Trinity
The Doctrine of the Trinity suggests that God has three forms: the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit.
Because of this doctrine, people sometimes question whether Christianity is truly monotheistic.
What Christian holiday celebrates Jesus’ resurrection from the dead?
Easter
Easter happens the first Sunday after the full Moon that occurs on or after the spring equinox.
This religious festivity actually grew out of the timing and practice of Passover from the Jewish practice, coinciding with the Spring harvest meal.
In fact, the Latin word for Easter (Pascha) is very similar to the Hebrew word for Passover (Pesach) because it comes from the same roots.
What Christian holiday celebrates the birth of Jesus Christ?
Christmas
Christmas is an annual festival which commemorates the birth of Jesus Christ on the 25th of December.
While it is originally a religious festivity, it is celebrated in many cultures as a joyous event where presents are given to loved ones.
It is also a time where Santa Claus makes his appearance and Norway Spruce trees are up for sale in large numbers.
What monotheistic religion was founded on the teachings of Muhammad?
Islam
Islam is currently the second most popular religion in the world, following Christianity.
Mohammed was believed to live between 570-632 AD.
There are approximately 1.6 billion practicing Muslims worldwide.
What is the name of the central text of the Islam?
Qur’an
(aka The Koran)
Literally meaning “the recitation,” it is believed to have been revealed by God to Muhammad over the course of 23 years via the angel Gabriel in the 7th century.
What is the literal meaning of Allah?
The God
Allah is the one and only God in Islam.
The name’s origin can be traced back to early Semitic writings in which the word for “god” was il, el, or eloah, the latter two being used in the Old Testament.
As one of the 5 pillars of Islam, at least once in their lifetime, practicing members must make a pilgrimage to _____.
Mecca
This city in Saudi Arabia was the birthplace of Mohammed (and of Islam) and today hosts several million Muslim visitors each year.
Note that the 4 other pillars of Islam are the acceptance of Allah, the daily prayer, the fasting during Ramadan, and the regular giving of charity.
In the Islamic faith, what is the name for the holy month during which Muslims do not eat or drink between sunrise and sunset?
Ramadan
They are also expected to follow the teachings of Islam more closely during this time.
Ramadan is determined by a lunar calendar, so it moves back about 11 days each calendar year.
The reason for fasting during this holy month is to develop God-consciousness, or Allah’s awareness. The month functions as a way to clean your sins.
Which two groups of Muslims have very different beliefs about who the Prophet Muhammad’s successor should be?
Sunnis and Shi’ites
Sunnis believe that a caliph (head of state) should be elected by the whole community.
Shi’ites assert that only Allah himself can choose a leader, and that Muhammad’s only rightful successors are his descendants.
What monotheistic religion follows the teachings of the Torah, which is part of the Hebrew Bible?
Judaism
There are approximately 14 million Jews in the world today, most of whom reside in Israel, Europe, and the United States.
Judaism, Christianity, and Islam are all considered _____ religions, due to their first communal prophet.
Abrahamic
Abraham is the first Patriarch, whose story is told in the Book of Genesis. All three religions can trace their origin to Abraham.
Which religious leader, considered an important prophet in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, received the Ten Commandments from God?
Moses
An Israelite (Hebrew), he is said to have been born in Egypt.
After fleeing from slavery in Egypt as a man, he was spoken to by God, who ordered him to return to Egypt and liberate the Hebrews.
Following the Plagues of Egypt and the release of the Israelites, he led his people on the Exodus across the Red Sea. He later received the Ten Commandments directly from God while at Mount Sinai, en route to the Holy Land in Israel.
What is the term used in Abrahamic religions for the anointed one, the savior or liberator of a group of people?
Messiah
(or messias)
Jews believe that a messiah (mashiach, “anointed one”) will one day appear on Earth.
Christians believe the Messiah has already come in the form of Jesus Christ.
In the Jewish faith, what week-long winter holiday celebrates the victory of the Jewish revolt against Greek rule?
Chanukkah
The Jewish revolt against the Greek rule was against Antiochus IV in the 2nd century B.C.
To provide light to rededicate the destroyed temple in the required time, oil was needed.
There was only enough oil left in the menorah in the Temple of Jerusalem to burn for one night, but God caused it miraculously to last eight nights.
Hence, the Chanukkah practice of lighting a new candle on the menorah each night.
In the Jewish faith, what is Rosh Hashanah?
The Jewish New Year
Rosh Hashanah lasts for two days in either September or October (depending on the Hebrew calendar), and is viewed as a time to reflect on the past year and plan improvements for the coming year.
The Hebrew calendar is not exactly aligned to the standard western (Christian) calendar, so the Jewish New Year seems to “move around” slightly each year.
In the Jewish faith, what is the name for the “Day of Atonement”, the most holy and solemn of Jewish holidays?
Yom Kippur
Yom Kippur lasts for one day in either September or October (depending on the Hebrew calendar), and is considered the last chance to repent for sins against God from the previous year.
Followers participate in a day-long fast and are prohibited from going to work. The fast is to clear one’s mind to focus on atonement.
In the Jewish faith, what is the name for the commemoration of the Jews’ Exodus from Egypt, where they had been enslaved?
Passover
(Pesach)
Passover is typically celebrated in April, and lasts for one week. During this time, all leaven (substance that allows bread to rise) must be removed from Jewish households.
A ritual meal called a seder is shared on the first and (usually) second nights.
A Jewish leader and scholar who teaches the Torah is called a ___.
Rabbi
Each Jewish synagogue tends to have a lead Rabbi, in the same way that a Christian church might have a lead Minister or Pastor.
In Jewish religion, what is the name for the coming of age ritual?
Bar/Bat Mitzvah
Boys become a bar mitzvah at age 13; girls at age 12.
Bar mitzvah = son of the commandment; Bat mitzvah = daughter of the commandment.
The ceremony is not required by Jewish law and is a relatively modern invention.
And certainly, the wild extravagant themed parties held after the modern bar/bat mitzvah ceremonies are not required by Jewish law either!
Which ancient Chinese general and philosopher authored The Art of War, one of the most influential treatises on military strategy and leadership?
Sun Tzu
Some of his famous words include:
- “A leader leads by example, not by force.”
- “Keep your friends close, and your enemies closer.”
- “The greatest victory is that which requires no battle.”
Which Italian Renaissance philosopher and author of The Prince advised rulers to maintain power by ruthlessly subordinating moral principles to their personal or political goals?
Niccolo Machiavelli
(1469-1527)
Today, when someone behaves in an extremely crafty, deceitful, and unscrupulous way to achieve personal ends, he or she may be described as acting “Machiavellian.”
Which 17th-century French philosopher made fundamental contributions to modern philosophy and the Scientific Revolution, and is best known for the statement: “I think, therefore I am”?
René Descartes
(1596-1650)
The Cartesian coordinate system is named after him.
Descartes created the four main principles of science in his treatise “Rules for the Direction of the Mind”.
- (1) Accept nothing as true that is not self-evident
- (2) Divide problems into their simplest parts
- (3) Solve problems by proceeding from simple to complex
- (4) Recheck the reasoning
Which 17th-century English philosopher and author of the book Leviathan, is now regarded as the founder of modern political philosophy?
Thomas Hobbes
(1588-1679)
Hobbes is known for his exploration of the challenges of social and political order.
He believed that the only way for humanity to not fall into the “state of nature,” a state of constant civil war and lack of cooperation, was for society to give full obedience to an unaccountable political authority of some form.
Which 18th-century French philosopher was a leading figure in the Enlightenment and is known for his novella Candide?
Voltaire
(1694-1778)
Voltaire had a considerable influence on both the French and American Revolutions, and was notable for his satirical wit in championing freedom of religion, freedom of expression, and the separation of church and state.
“Voltaire” was a pen name; his real name was François-Marie Arouet.
A central figure of the 18th Century European Enlightenment, which Swiss-born French philosopher argued that humans are inherently good by nature but corrupted by society?
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
(1712-1778)
Influential to modern thought and particularly to the French Revolution, Rousseau is known for his works On the Social Contract, Discourse on Inequality, Émile, and his autobiography Confessions.
Which Scottish philosopher wrote The Wealth of Nations, considered the first work on modern economics?
Adam Smith
(1723-1790)
Smith is known most for his belief that rational self-interest in a free market economy can be the basis for overall economic security and well-being.
According to Smith, no government intervention is needed, because the “invisible hand” of supply and demand will consistently restore economic equilibrium.
Which 18th-century German philosopher wrote Critique of Pure Reason?
Immanuel Kant
(1724-1804)
He aimed to unite reason and experience, as in his mind metaphysics had not arrived at answers on important topics such as free will, God, and the soul.
A proponent of Existentialism, which 19th-century German philosopher challenged Christianity and morality, believing in the idea of “life-affirmation”?
Friedrich Nietzsche
(1844-1900)
He is famous for his books Beyond Good and Evil and God is Dead.
Which 20th-century French philosopher, known as a central figure of existentialism, is famous for his works Being and Nothingness and the play No Exit?
Jean-Paul Sartre
(1905-1980)
Sartre was awarded, but refused, the 1964 Nobel Prize in Literature. He is quoted as saying, “a writer should not allow himself to be turned into an institution.”
In Norse mythology, what is the name of the chief god of the Norse pantheon and the rule of Asgard?
Odin
He is the God of battle, victory, magic, wisdom, and poetry.
He is recognizable by having only one eye and rides an eight-legged horse called Sleipnir.
Sometimes portrayed with a wide-brimmed hat, a cloak, and a wooden staff.
In Norse mythology, what is the name of the god of thunderstorms, strength, healing, and destruction who wields the legendary hammer Mjolnir?
Thor
Thor’s hammer Mjolnir has become a symbol of pagan pride.
His appearance and legend is now part of pop culture due to Marvel’s creation of Thor as a comic book hero.
The ______ is one of the most significant mythical creatures in Chinese mythology.
dragon
It is seen as the most powerful and divine creature, with the ability to control water.
