Define:
attribution theory
Attribution theory refers to the study of how individuals explain the causes of events and the behaviors of others.
Several important MCAT concepts relate to attribution theory, such as the fundamental attribution error.
The two main types of attributions are:
situational and dispositional.
Attributions are explanations that people provide for behaviors. Situational attributions relate to another person’s circumstances, while dispositional attributions relate to their personality or character.
People who engage in the fundamental attribution error underemphasize which type of attributions?
Situational attributions
Situational attributions are explanations for another person’s behavior that relate to that person’s current situation or external circumstances.
People who engage in the fundamental attribution error overemphasize which type of attributions?
Dispositional attributions
Dispositional attributions are explanations for another person’s behavior that relate to that person’s personality or character traits.
Which concept in psychology and sociology refers to a difference between how we attribute our own behavior and how we attribute the behavior of others?
Actor-observer bias
Jenna recently found out that she had gained about 15 pounds since graduating from college. According to the actor-observer bias, how might she attribute this?
She is likely to attribute it to situational causes.
For example, Jenna might blame her stressful job, the fact that she hasn’t been able to work out lately due to family obligations, or any other circumstance-related cause.
Jenna goes to her high school reunion and sees that an old acquaintance has put on some weight. According to the actor-observer bias, how might she attribute this?
She is likely to attribute it to dispositional causes.
For example, Jenna might think that her acquaintance has stopped trying to be healthy or eats too much.
A driver is briefly stuck behind an extremely slow-moving car. The driver responds by thinking “This guy can’t drive! He shouldn’t be on the road. What an inconsiderate jerk.” This driver is exhibiting __________ error.
fundamental attribution
Instead of considering situational factors (for example, maybe the car is malfunctioning mechanically), this driver blames the person’s disposition. This is a classic example of the fundamental attribution error.
Describe the key difference between the actor-observer bias and the fundamental attribution error.
The actor-observer bias refers to a discrepancy between how we view our own behavior and how we view the behavior of others.
The fundamental attribution error deals only with how we view the behavior of others.
Name the psychological theory that (perhaps counterintuitively) states that we develop attitudes in part from reflecting on our own behavior.
Bem’s self-perception theory
For example, if I work a long day for little pay, I might later reflect on the day and believe that I must have enjoyed the work. This idea that behavior influences attitude goes against the more intuitive idea that attitude influences behavior.
In an experiment based on Bem’s self-perception theory, subjects listened to a person enthusiastically describe a terribly boring task. Half of the subjects were told that he was paid $10 for the task, while the rest were told that he was paid $100. Which group of subjects is likely to believe that he enjoyed the task more?
The group told that he was paid $10
This is highly similar to Bem’s original experiment. The subjects who believed the enthusiastic man was paid very little for a boring task develop the attitude that he must have really enjoyed it.
Which concept in psychology and sociology refers to a difference between how we attribute our own behavior under good versus bad circumstances?
Self-serving bias
Darryl is fired from his job. According to the self-serving bias, how might he attribute this?
He is likely to attribute it to situational causes.
For example, Darryl might believe that his boss had a grudge against him, that his firing is really the fault of others on his team who didn’t pull their weight, or any other circumstance-related cause.
After being fired, Darryl quickly gets a new job with a slight raise. According to the self-serving bias, how might he attribute this?
He is likely to attribute it to dispositional causes.
For example, Darryl might think that his interviewer clearly must have recognized how smart and talented he is.
Name the bias that causes individuals to overemphasize dispositional factors when attributing the behavior of others.
The fundamental attribution error (FAE)
The FAE can be distinguished from the similar concept of actor-observer bias in that the FAE deals only with others’ (not our own) behavior.
Name the bias that causes individuals to overemphasize dispositional factors when good things happen to them and to overemphasize situational factors when bad things occur.
Self-serving bias
Self-serving bias can be distinguished from the similar concepts of fundamental attribution error and actor-observer bias in that:
- it deals only with ourselves (not others)
- it is the only one of these concepts to involve differing attributions depending on the good or bad nature of the situation.
Name the bias that causes individuals to overemphasize dispositional factors for others’ actions and to overemphasize situational factors for their own actions.
Actor-observer bias
Actor-observer bias can be distinguished from the similar concept of fundamental attribution error in that actor-observer bias deals with both others’ and our own behavior.
Most physicians make sure to have a clean office, provide amenities, and dress neatly when meeting with new potential patients. If a physician believes this will help her land new patients, she believes patients will use ________ to form their perception of the doctor.
perceptions of the environment
These shape our perceptions of others. Research shows that people are more likely to perceive someone positively if they are in a relaxed, comfortable environment.
A 2014 study found that unconscious preferences for wealthier patients were prevalent among trauma and acute care surgeons. In turn, many patients perceived these highly-paid specialists as snobs. Both groups are experiencing a bias based on:
class.
Socioeconomic status, class power, and prestige can influence the biases and prejudices an individual may hold.
A stockbroker has a stock in his portfolio that is performing poorly, but he refuses to sell it, as it is a stock that his best friend told him about. Those who study ______ bias might argue that he does not want to sell because he does not want to admit that the loss is real and partly his friend’s fault.
emotional
An emotional bias is a distortion in thought or decision-making due to emotional factors. As a result, the person will likely engage in one of two different behaviors:
- They may believe in something that has a positive emotional effect, even if there is evidence to the contrary.
OR
- They may be reluctant to accept hard truths that are unpleasant and cause mental suffering.
Define:
prejudice
Prejudice refers to unfavorable emotional reactions or judgments about a person due to his or her status or membership in a group.
For example, if Winnie is prejudiced against men, she may have a negative emotional reaction when she hears that a job candidate is a man, even though she has never met him.
Define:
stereotype
A stereotype refers to generalized beliefs about members of a group.
For example, if Winnie holds stereotypes about men, she may believe that all men are untrustworthy or that all men are obsessed with going to the gym.
True or false:
The views embodied in stereotypes are always negative.
False
The views embodied in stereotypes are often negative, but not always. For example, many groups are stereotyped as being unusually good at certain activities. However, the existence of even these stereotypes has negative consequences, as they decrease the understanding that every person is an individual and has his or her own personality and strengths.
Define:
discrimination
Discrimination refers to differential treatment of a person or group based on their status or membership in that group.
Importantly, unlike prejudice or stereotyping, discrimination always involves action, such as denying someone a job or charging them extra for the same product.
If Adam believes that all Asian people are smarter than other people, and if he does not allow for the possibility that some Asian people are not this smart, then Adam’s view of Asian people is a:
stereotype.
Stereotypes are fixed ways of thinking about people in which one classifies others into specific categories without much room for variation.
A commonly-held belief is that women are better at parenting and caring for children than men. A man who is aware of this belief may try to fight it by becoming a stay-at-home dad, but the anxiety and distraction caused by the beliefs about his ability cause him to perform poorly as a father. This situation exemplifies:
stereotype threat.
This occurs when worry about conforming to a negative stereotype leads to underperformance on the task involved in the stereotype by a member of the stereotyped group.
In a research study, two groups of women are asked to take a math test. Before the test, Group 1 reads articles about women underperforming on academic measures, while Group 2 works on puzzles for the same amount of time. All else being equal, which group is expected to perform worse?
Group 1 (the group who read articles about women underperforming academically)
This situation embodies stereotype threat. Almost paradoxically, being aware of a stereotype against us can make us nervous to the point that we fulfill the stereotype.
The effects of stereotype threat, when perceived by observers as the fault of the stereotyped group, can form:
a self-fulfilling prophecy.
Since stereotype threat causes the stereotyped group to “fulfill” the stereotype, if observers are unaware of the reason behind this, it can contribute further to the stereotype, leading to a vicious cycle.
Danielle, an electronics store employee, is assigned to work as a customer service representative because she is a woman. This exemplifies:
discrimination.
Remember, discrimination exists whenever an action causes the differential treatment of the members of different groups.
Someone who looks at a dating profile and says “ew!” when they realize that the person in the profile is very short is exemplifying:
As a side note, the person in this example is a real jerk.
prejudice.
Prejudice refers to a negative reaction to a person or group based on their characteristics, status, or group membership. Note that this situation is slightly different from stereotyping, as the person in this example didn’t mention any generalized views about short people.
Diane believes her boyfriend is cheating on her and will leave her. She begins snooping around his belongings, breaking into his phone, and acting confrontational and jealous around him. If the boyfriend eventually breaks up with Diane due to this behavior, this is an example of:
self-fulfilling prophecy.
A self-fulfilling prophecy is a prediction that causes itself to come true due to the simple fact that the prediction was made. This happens because beliefs influence actions.
Name the sociological model that rates stereotypes along two dimensions: warmth and competence.
The stereotype content model
This model categorizes the impressions we have of others into admiration, paternalism, contemptuousness, and enviousness.
According to the stereotype content model, low warmth and low competence corresponds to which stereotype?
The contemptuous stereotype
“Contemptuous” essentially means “disgusted,” which makes sense here, as the group in question is both disliked (low warmth) and viewed as weak or incompetent (low competence).
According to the stereotype content model, high warmth and low competence corresponds to which stereotype?
The paternalistic stereotype
Paternalism refers to how we tend to perceive groups that we think of as weak or non-threatening (low competence) but that we still like/view warmly (high warmth).
According to the stereotype content model, low warmth and high competence corresponds to which stereotype?
The envious stereotype
This refers to how we tend to react to groups that we dislike (low warmth) but that we view as highly effective and/or threatening (high competence).
According to the stereotype content model, high warmth and high competence corresponds to which stereotype?
The admiration stereotype
This stereotype is usually reserved for members of our in-group and close friends, whom we view as both people we like (high warmth) and people who are competent/effective (high competence).
A rival high school swimteam that usually wins the state championship would be viewed with the __________ stereotype.
Choose from the four stereotypes of the stereotype content model.
envious
Rival teams are a classic example of the envious stereotype, since we view them as highly competent, but we are threatened by them or just outright don’t like them (low warmth).
Our little old grandmas and grandpas are commonly viewed with the __________ stereotype.
Choose from the four stereotypes of the stereotype content model.
paternalistic
We usually love our older relatives (high warmth), but we (often unfairly) may tend to view them as weak due to their old age and in need of care (low competence).
In a hyperindividualistic, capitalist society like the U.S., impoverished people unfortunately may be viewed with the __________ stereotype.
Choose from the four stereotypes of the stereotype content model.
contemptuous
This stereotype is used against groups that are usually disliked or resented (low warmth) and also viewed as ineffectual or weak (low competence). This is clearly not how society should be! However, it certainly is an attitude that currently exists in varying forms throughout the country.
In many countries, openly LGBT individuals face hostility and discrimination based on their relationships. This is a consequence of the social _______ surrounding their behavior.
stigma
Stigma is the disapproval and shame felt by people exhibiting characteristics or behavior that their particular society considers wrong or unusual. While the stigma against LGBT individuals has decreased in the U.S. in recent years, it certainly still exists, and it is even more prevalent in many other countries.
Describe the difference between individualist and collectivist cultures with regard to the attributions that are commonly made.
Members of individualist societies may be more likely to make dispositional attributions than members of collectivist societies.
On the flip side, a collectivist society, where it is accepted that everyone contributes to a group outcome, is more likely to foster situational attributions than an individualist society, where people are valued for their own personal contributions.
Which sociological term refers to judging other cultures by the standards of one’s own culture, which is often accompanied by the view that one’s own culture is superior?
Ethnocentrism
Often accompanied by the belief (conscious or unconscious) that “my society, group, or culture is superior,” ethnocentrism manifests as the judgment of all behavior and attitudes in comparison to one’s own culture, with differences seen as negative.
An alternative way to view other cultures in a more positive, accepting light than ethnocentrism is termed:
cultural relativism.
This is the idea that analyzing or judging someone’s beliefs, values, and behaviors must be viewed from the perspective of their culture. Cultural relativism is considered the positive alternative to ethnocentrism.
Japan has a population that is 98% ethnic Japanese. As a result, Japanese culture can be opposed to, and distrustful of, foreigners. This hostility to foreigners, if taken to extreme lengths, would be classified as:
xenophobia.
This is a term that refers to a generalized and irrational dislike, fear, or hatred of “outsiders,” those people who are of different cultures or ethnic groups. This level of fear or hatred goes beyond simple prejudice or racism.
A study is designed whereby a subject is asked to listen (through headphones) to a speech given by presidential candidates from 1960 and to identify and repeat any ethnocentric statements as they are heard. This technique of listening and repetition is known as:
speech shadowing.
This is an experimental technique in which subjects repeat speech immediately after hearing it. In this case, speech shadowing is being used as a technique in a study of ethnocentrism/stereotyping.
