This branch of sociology might study the relationship between one specific doctor and his patient, Linda, regarding how they interact during visits.
Microsociology
This is the area of sociology which focuses on the nature of everyday human social interactions and agency on a small scale: face to face.
This branch of sociology might study the relationship between primary care physicians in general and their patients in a hospital setting.
Macrosociology
This is the area of sociology which focuses on the study of larger organizations, communities, and societies that individuals reside in.
___________ seeks to examine each part of society in terms of how it contributes to the stability of the whole society.
One example is the interdependence of families and the government to pay taxes and provide education for children, respectively.
Functionalism
According to social functionalism, societies are networks of interconnected parts that work together to maintain a state of balance and social equilibrium for the whole system.
From the sociological perspective of functionalism, what is the difference between manifest and latent functions?
A manifest function is an intended purpose of the institution or other part of society, while a latent function is an unintended benefit or result.
True or false:
From the sociological perspective of functionalism, all effects of social institutions are beneficial.
False
While functionalism does posit that societies are networks of interconnected parts that work together to maintain balance, it never states that all of the effects of these parts are good.
In fact, functionalism includes the concept of dysfunctions, or negative impacts of a social institution.
From a functionalist perspective, what term or phrase accurately describes the following?
Joining the military allows many individuals access to higher education through the G.I. Bill.
This is a latent function of the military.
A latent function is an unintended (or latent) beneficial consequence (or function) of a social institution.
Providing access to higher education is beneficial in current U.S. society, but it is not the manifest (or directly intended) function of the military.
From a functionalist perspective, what term or phrase accurately describes the following?
The U.S. military awards hundreds of billions of dollars annually in the form of contracts, which opens up the opportunity for unfair preferential treatment of and lobbying by defense and technology companies.
This is a latent dysfunction of the military.
A latent dysfunction is an unintended (or latent) adverse consequence (or dysfunction) of a social institution.
Please note that the military happens to be the example we used here, but according to functionalism, every social institution has its functions and dysfunctions.
From a functionalist perspective, what term or phrase accurately describes the following?
Anti-drug legislation in a medium-size country was passed to give the government power to arrest the leaders of violent gangs.
This is a manifest function of government legislation.
A manifest function is an intended (or manifest) beneficial consequence (or function) of a social institution. Since the legislation was designed to facilitate the arrest of gang leaders, this is a manifest function.
From a functionalist perspective, what term or phrase accurately describes the following?
Anti-drug legislation unintentionally forced drug sales farther into the shadows, causing more opiate addicts to die from violence and tainted drugs.
This is a latent dysfunction of government legislation.
A latent dysfunction is an unintended (or latent) adverse consequence (or dysfunction) of a social institution. While we all may have differing opinions about anti-drug legislation, killing opiate addicts was not the stated purpose of such legislation, making it latent rather than manifest.
________ views society as individuals and groups competing for finite resources, which leads to behaviors which allow one to maintain power and privilege in a given social setting.
Conflict theory
This theory posits that conflict can arise between different groups of people that have differing goals and/or are competing over limited resources. Conflict theory often relates to socioeconomic class, although it can also relate to gender, age, race, etc.
True or false:
Examples of conflict theory always involve a physical or military conflict.
False
If only it were that easy! However, conflict theory does not need to involve an obvious conflict. Instead, in MCAT questions, conflict theory can be identified based on:
- the presence of a struggle for resources or power, whether military or otherwise, and
- an overall outlook on society that is somewhat less positive than functionalism.
If Olivia loves to read, a ________ would suggest that she learned to like books via the interactions she had with family, friends, or figures at school.
Choose from the sociological perspectives (functionalist, conflict theorist, etc.).
symbolic interactionist
Symbolic interactionism is a view which understands social interactions via the subjective meanings that people impose on objects, events, and behaviors. It posits that subjective meanings are given primacy because people act based on what they believe and not just on what is objectively true. For example, a friendly hand gesture in one country may be considered obscene in another.
The U.S. dollar has no intrinsic value. Yet society has decided that these small, rectangular pieces of paper can be exchanged for goods and services. This collective agreement on meaning is an example of Vygotsky’s theory of:
social constructivism.
Social constructivism (or constructionism) proposes that reality is what humans cognitively agree it to be. People build social constructs based on interactions with others, and those constructs that last over time are those that have widely agreed-upon meanings or are accepted by the majority of society.
Which sociological perspective does this exemplify?
Throughout U.S. history, women have banded together against opposition groups to lobby for the right to vote, for equal pay, and for other causes.
Conflict theory
This example involves different groups in society (women and opposition groups) competing and clashing in the service of their goals. In the fight for equal pay, for example, groups are competing over a limited resource: money.
Which sociological perspective does this exemplify?
The education system teaches children skills that are later useful in the workplace, while employers and workers support education with tax dollars and donations to nonprofit education groups.
Functionalism
Overall, this description is one of cohesion: different groups in society playing different roles to ensure a functioning system. This aligns best with functionalism.
Which sociological perspective does this exemplify?
Sharon, a 15-year-old, grew up hearing that women should focus on marriage and household roles. Courtney, a 15-year-old in a different part of the country, learned martial arts and is the kicker on her high school’s football team because she was taught that women need to be able to defend themselves.
Social constructivism
Gender roles, in general, are a classic example of social constructivism, which proposes that reality is based on agreed-upon social constructs. This (partially) explains variations in gender roles across regions and societies.
Is the sociological perspective of symbolic interactionism a microsociological or macrosociological perspective?
Symbolic interactionism is a microsociological perspective.
Symbolic interactionism is microsociological because it often focuses on one-on-one or similarly small-scale interactions. While less likely to be tested, you can consider the remaining sociological perspectives (conflict theory, etc.) to be largely macrosociological.
Identify the social theory illustrated in the example below.
Shy, timid Petra walks up to Julian to ask him out on a date. If Julian says yes, Petra’s reward is a potential good date, and she is likely to ask men out again in the future. However, if Julian says no, Petra feels punished and she will likely stop initiating dates.
Social exchange theory
This theory posits that human relationships are formed via the use of a subjective cost-benefit analysis and the comparison of alternatives.
Sansa cannot believe the recent behavior of her friend, Petyr. Petyr tells Sansa that he makes all of his decisions based upon his own subjective calculations of personal profit, no matter how illogical they may seem to others. Which social theory does this best exemplify?
Rational choice theory
This theory posits that people are often motivated by “profit,” be it personal, financial, or emotional. Thus, an individual will make a decision after calculating the likely costs and benefits of any action, using their own rationality (which may not seem rational to others).
Name the sociological theory that focuses on exploring gender inequality and the nature of gender roles.
Feminist theory
Feminist theory involves analysis of gender roles, systemic inequalities, and societal expectations across many fields, from politics and the workplace to literature.
As of now, feminist theory has developed in how many waves?
Three waves (with a potential fourth wave in progress)
While a great deal more could be said about these waves, here they are in very short summary:
- A focus on suffrage and political rights
- A focus on social inequality between the sexes
- A focus on the concepts of globalization, postcolonialism, post-structuralism, and postmodernism
- A burgeoning focus on empowerment and justice against sexual assault and harassment
Feminism may conflict with ________, because while ________ necessitates the tolerance of foreign cultural practices, some of those practices might maintain an oppression of women that feminists find unacceptable.
Note that the same word applies to both blanks.
multiculturalism
Multiculturalism is a view of different cultures which posits that cultural practices, no matter how unusual, should be tolerated as a measure of respect for that culture. This can conflict with feminism when those cultural practices subjugate women, for example.
Idenitfy the five main social institutions that comprise society.
The five social institutions that you must know for the MCAT are:
- Education
- Family
- Religion
- Government/economy
- Health/medicine
Define:
hidden curriculum
Hidden curriculum refers to concepts, norms, and values that are taught in educational settings but are not explicitly part of the curriculum.
True or false:
The existence of a hidden curriculum is harmful and should always be minimized.
False
You may have guessed that this statement was false from its extreme nature alone. In fact, while the hidden curriculum can perpetuate inequalities, much attention has been paid to it recently in attempts to use it for good (that is, to transmit implicit beneficial norms and values).
Predictably, teachers’ expectations often meaningfully influence student performance. What name is given to this phenomenon?
Teacher expectancy
This concept posits that students can receive overt or covert signals about their abilities from their teacher. Students often pick up on their teachers’ expectations of them and perform accordingly.
A 2015 analysis of New York City public schools found a strong correlation between school performance on state-wide exams and the size of the local tax base. This difference illustrates the effect of:
educational segregation.
Educational segregation is any disparity in educational opportunities or resources as a result of societal stratification (race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, gender, religion, etc.).
Identify the three degrees of kinship.
Primary kin, secondary kin, and tertiary kin
Here, primary kin represents the most direct relationship, while tertiary kin represents the least direct relationship.
Define:
primary kin
Primary kin are individuals who are extremely closely related.
Here, “extremely closely related” must mean one of the following: husband/wife, parent/child, or sibling/sibling.
Define:
secondary kin
Secondary kin are the primary kin of our primary kin. (In other words, they are one degree more distant from us than our primary kin.)
This includes relationships such as uncle/nephew and grandparent/grandchild.
Define:
tertiary kin
Tertiary kin are the primary kin of our secondary kin or the secondary kin of our primary kin. This is the most distant degree of kinship.
This includes relationships such as those between great-grandparents and their great-grandchildren.
My relationship with my sister’s son exemplifies which degree of kinship?
Secondary kinship
Secondary kinship is that between us and the primary kin of our primary kin. Here, my sister is my primary kin, and her son is her primary kin.
My relationship with my wife’s grandparents exemplifies which degree of kinship?
Tertiary kinship
Secondary kinship is that between us and the primary kin of our secondary kin or the secondary kin of our primary kin. Here, my wife is my primary kin, and her grandparents are her secondary kin.
In anthropology and sociology, there are generally considered to be three types of kinship. Name these three types.
Consanguineal, affinal, and fictive kinship
Consanguineal kinship refers to kinship through blood relationships or genetics, affinal kinship is kinship through marriage, and fictive kinship includes all kinship that is neither consanguineal nor affinal.
Twin brothers are connected by which type of kinship?
Consanguineal kinship
Consanguineal kinship refers to human relationships based on genetics (“blood relations”), such as parents and children or siblings.
The Walker family and the Ramirez family became close friends when James Walker married Alexandria Ramirez. These families are connected to each other via ______ kinship.
affinal
Affinal kinship refers to kinship through marriage, rather than through blood. The Walkers and the Ramirezes are connected through the marriage between one member of each family.
Legal adoption, foster care, and “Friendsgivings” are all examples of what form of kinship?
Fictive kinship
Fictive kinship refers to human kinship relationships that are due to neither genetics nor marriage. (The term “fictive” does not mean they are any less valid than other kinship relationships.) Adoption, foster care, and close friends who share Thanksgiving would all exemplify fictive kinship.
A nuclear family (mom, dad, and kids) is no longer the only model of a healthy family. The variation in family units, more common in modern times, is termed _________.
family diversity
Family diversity is the wide range of family structures in modern society (adoptive parents, single parents, homosexual parents, step-parents, and more).
________ is the formation of a legal form of kinship, while ________ is the legal dissolution of this connection.
Marriage, divorce
Marriage makes one’s spouse a form of kin, especially when it comes to legal and healthcare matters. A spouse can even be next-of-kin, meaning if anything happens to the person and they cannot make legal/medical decisions, their spouse can do so on their behalf.
_______ is the emotional or physical attack or neglect by one or more individuals (often a parent or family member) on a child.
Child abuse is the emotional or physical attack or neglect by one or more individuals (often a parent or family member) on a child.
_______ is the emotional or physical attack or neglect by one or more individuals (often a child or caregiver) on a person over 65 years of age.
Elder abuse is the emotional or physical attack or neglect by one or more individuals (often a child or caregiver) on a person over 65 years of age.
_______ is the emotional or physical attack or other mistreatment by one partner on another in a relationship (e.g. a wife beating her husband).
Spousal/domestic abuse is the emotional or physical attack or other mistreatment by one partner on another in a relationship (e.g. a wife beating her husband).
This is the measure of how strictly/devoutly one adheres to the customs and rituals of their religion.
Religiosity
Name the seven characteristics of churches as outlined by Johnstone.
- Universality
- Religious monopoly
- Allied closely with state and secular powers
- Organized as a hierarchical bureaucratic institution with a complex division of labor
- Professional clergy
- Gain new members through reproduction and the socialization of children into the ranks
- Create diversity by creating different internal groups (orders of nuns or monks) rather than forming new religions
Which of Johnstone’s seven characteristics of a church involves attempts by the church to try to minimize religious competition?
Religious monopoly
While this does not apply to all churches, clear past and present examples exist, including violent clashes between religious groups with differing beliefs.
Throughout history, small groups have split off from larger churches, with their members arguing for different and often conflicting beliefs. These small groups are:
sects.
A sect is a relatively small group of people with different religious beliefs from those of a larger religious group from which they have split off.
Some large churches can be divided into ________, which are stable groups larger than sects but with somewhat (albeit not extremely) different beliefs.
denominations
Denominations can be thought to fall between churches and sects with regard to size and deviation of beliefs from other groups within the same religion.
Small, close-knit and tightly-controlled groups that often isolate themselves from society are termed:
cults.
It can be difficult to distinguish cults from sects (as cult members often do not consider themselves part of a cult). However, cults are more isolated than sects and are more likely to have one charismatic leader.
Among churches, cults, and sects, which group tends to be the most bureaucratic?
Churches
Churches tend to be more bureaucratic than cults or sects, in large part because churches tend to have many more members, and bureaucracy is directly tied to the number of individuals in an organization.
Among churches, cults, and sects, which group is most likely to be highly dependent on a single religious leader?
Cults
Most, although not all, cults are founded by and/or managed by a single charismatic leader. Cult members are typically highly dependent on the orders, teachings, and demands of this leader.
True or false:
Both sects and denominations are groups that have different religious beliefs than members of the church they either split off from or are part of.
True
Sects are split-off groups with different (sometimes very different) beliefs from those of the church they split from. Denominations are subsets of a church that have differing beliefs from other denominations of that church.
The weapons police officers carry are typically seen as a symbol of their _______ on behalf of the government, while their badge is a representation of their legal _______.
power, authority
Power is the ability or potential of an individual to influence others and control their actions. Authority is the legal and formal right to give orders and commands and make decisions.
_________ is the loss of authority and influence by religion. This influence is transferred to non-religious institutions.
Secularization
Secularization occurs when religion loses its influence on people. This influence is transferred to non-religious, or secular, institutions.
The increased adoption of scientific and technological knowledge into society is known as _________.
modernization
This form of social change impacts religion, often (albeit not always) increasing secularization, as religious explanations of events are replaced by scientific ones.
How does capitalism differ from socialism?
The economic system of capitalism focuses on profit-seeking enterprises by individuals and competition within markets.
In contrast, socialism places control of industries in the hands of the government, with resources meant to be equally shared and profits equally dispersed.
Those who believe in strict interpretations of their religious texts (e.g. Abrahamic religions’ condemnation of adultery) and seek to enact punishments based on these texts are examples of religious:
fundamentalists.
Religious fundamentalism is the idea that one can derive absolute authority over society from a sacred religious text or the teachings of a particular religious leader, prophet, or deity.
Many economists see modern China as a ______ economy, since it has classic elements of both capitalist and socialist societies.
mixed
A mixed economy is one in which there are elements of both capitalism (private industry, profit-driven) and socialism (state-owned industry, equality-driven).
A physician interviewing a patient notices that the floor is wet, so she goes to grab a rag to wipe up the spill. She is told that she cannot do this and must call maintenance to come clean up the spill. This is an example of _______ within the hospital’s bureaucratic organization.
division of labor
Division of labor is the assignment of different parts of a manufacturing process or complex task to different people in order to improve efficiency. The physician’s duty is to treat patients, nothing else.
The last 30 years of societal development in America has seen obesity, alcoholism, childhood hyperactivity, and sexual abuse all defined as medical problems. On the contrary, former diseases such as homosexuality are no longer considered pathologies. This process of reassessing which conditions are considered diseases is known as:
medicalization.
This is the social process through which experiences or conditions are culturally defined as pathological and treatable medical issues.
What term encompasses both the rights and the duties of ill individuals in society?
The sick role
This sociological term includes both rights (such as the right to be exempt from normal social obligations) and duties (such as the duty to try to recover if possible).
Name three norms that characterize the sick role in society.
- The person is not held accountable for his or her ailment.
- The person is not expected to fulfill his or her normal societal roles.
- The person is expected to seek medical attention, do as the doctor says, and work to get well.
According to the model of the illness experience, what typically precedes the adoption of the sick role?
The experience of symptoms
According to the illness experience model, the individual first experiences symptoms, starts to realize that something is wrong, and then adopts the sick role. Of course, exceptions exist (such as an individual who notices no symptoms but happens to test positive for a condition).
According to the model of the illness experience, what is the last step undergone by an individual with a treatable illness?
Recovery and return to wellness
Of course, this only applies to treatable (and properly treated) illnesses. Note also that even individuals with treatable diseases may never reach this step if they refuse aspects of the sick role (such as following their doctors’ advice).
Which branch of epidemiology assumes that the distribution of advantages and disadvantages in a society will be correlated strongly to the distribution of health and disease in the society?
Social epidemiology
Social epidemiology proposes to identify societal properties that affect the pattern of disease and health distribution in a society and to understand its mechanisms. It focuses on the effects of social/structural factors on health.
Identify six major elements of culture.
Six major elements of culture are as follows:
- Language
- Artifacts
- Symbols
- Values
- Norms
- Rituals
In the context of the elements of culture, what is language?
Language is the system of words and symbols used by people in a society to communicate with each other.
In the context of the elements of culture, what are symbols?
Symbols include anything that is used in a culture to represent something else.
Symbols can include nonverbal communication (such as a handshake or a gesture) as well as representations of ideas (such as a cross representing religious faith).
In the context of the elements of culture, what are values?
Values are culturally-defined standards regarding what is good (desirable) or bad (undesirable) in a society.
The physical objects, materials, and structures that characterize a society constitute what kind of culture?
Material culture
Material culture includes physical, tangible objects, such as clothing, food, buildings, tools, and any other physical element of a culture.
The intangible aspects of a society, such as its beliefs, customs, and values, constitute what kind of culture?
Symbolic culture
In contrast to material culture, symbolic culture refers to intangible aspects of a society, including beliefs, values, oral traditions (stories), and customs.
The concept of a “heaven,” or afterlife, that is prevalent in many religion-based cultures is an example of [material culture/symbolic culture].
Choose one term from the box above to accurately complete the sentence.
The concept of a “heaven,” or afterlife, that is prevalent in many religion-based cultures is an example of symbolic culture.
Since the concept of “heaven” is an idea rather than a physical object, it exemplifies symbolic culture.
The towering spires of Angkor Wat, a sprawling, 800-year-old complex dedicated to the Hindu god Vishnu, is an example of which type of culture?
Material culture
Since they are physical and tangible (in other words, they can be touched), buildings are a form of material culture.
The advent of effective sexual prophylaxis and birth control in the late 20th century posed a challenge that the Catholic Church is still dealing with and incorporating into beliefs to this day. This delay is known as:
culture lag.
This is the idea that material culture changes faster than symbolic culture.
A disoriented feeling experienced by a person who is suddenly exposed to an unfamiliar culture or set of beliefs, norms, or attitudes is termed:
culture shock.
Name the four phases of culture shock, in order.
The four phases of culture shock are as follows:
- Honeymoon
- Frustration (or negotiation)*
- Adjustment
- Acceptance
*The naming of this second phase differs in different sources. We recommend knowing both names (and the MCAT will never ask you which is more correct.)
During which phase of culture shock does the individual learn to start coping with culture-based frustration and confusion in a positive way?
The adjustment phase
This is the third phase of culture shock. It comes between phase two (negotiation) and phase four (adaptation).
While individuals are typically excited about a new culture shortly after moving there, this excitement may give way to frustration at cultural differences and loneliness stemming from language barriers. Sometimes simply termed “frustration,” an alternative term for this second phase of culture shock is:
negotiation.
This second phase is generally the most unpleasant of the four phases, as the individual has lost some of the initial excitement associated with the new culture but has not yet learned to cope with cultural differences.
The fourth and final phase of culture shock is:
adaptation.
By this time, the person can be considered a full participant in the host culture. Living within the host culture is now comfortable, although the person may still retain some traditions, values, and other aspects of the original culture.
During Jack’s trip to Italy, he was enamored with the culture, food, and locals for the first few weeks. Jack was in which phase of culture shock?
The honeymoon phase
This is the first phase of culture shock. It is marked by excitement and a strong positive response to the new culture.
The United States largely separates religion from the functions of governing and law. The secularization over time of the Christians, Muslims, and Hindus that immigrate to the United States to this way of life is an example of:
cultural assimilation.
Cultural assimilation is the process by which a person’s or group’s culture come to resemble those of another group.
The overwhelmingly positive response to a U.S. female fencer wearing a hijab (religious headscarf) to compete in the 2016 Olympic Games was followed by many campaigns combining aspects of American pride with the garment. This encouragement of cultural mixing is an example of:
multiculturalism.
Multiculturalism is the view that cultural differences should be respected or even encouraged.
The individuals in the images below are all members of distinct ________ within society.
subcultures
Subcultures are groups within a society that hold sets of values, behaviors and norms distinct from those of the majority. Subcultures might include hippies, Trekkies, punks, hipsters, goths, hip-hop fans, bikers, etc.
The “hippie” subculture of the 1960s was openly against the status quo in most major societal institutions (e.g. education, government, military, marriage) and also radically broke with society’s view on sex. As a result, this group can be labeled a:
counterculture.
A counterculture is any subculture whose values and norms of behavior differ significantly from (or potentially outright oppose) the norms and expectations of mainstream society and its cultural mores.
The superhero movie craze that has been in full swing since 2008’s Ironman film has now spread to television, the Internet, and literature. This mass appeal and wide audience would indicate that superheroes are now a significant part of America’s:
pop culture.
Popular (pop) culture is the collection of (usually) material culture (e.g. music, art, literature, fashion, cyber culture, movies, etc.) that is consumed by the majority of the society. This culture normally has mass accessibility and appeal, which enables it to transcend subcultures and demographics within the society.
YouTube, cable news, Time magazine and news radio are all influencers of pop culture due to their role as:
mass media.
This is the varied collection of media technologies that reach a large audience via mass communication (e.g. TV, digital/Internet, radio, newspaper, etc.).
The spread of cultural beliefs, traditions, and activities from older generations to younger ones within a society is termed:
cultural transmission.
This transmission of ideas and traditions is typically vertical, meaning that it occurs between generations.
The spread of cultural beliefs, traditions, and activities from one group/society to another is termed:
cultural diffusion.
In contrast to cultural transmission (which is vertical, or between generations), cultural diffusion is more horizontal (between members of different cultures). The blending of cultures across different ethnicities, religions, and nationalities has increased with advances in technology.
A grandmother is teaching her granddaughter the methods that their culture uses for ship-based travel and navigation using the stars. This is an example of:
cultural transmission.
Since this transfer of ideas is occurring between generations of people in the same culture, this is cultural transmission, not cultural diffusion.
Name the sociological theorem that posits that one’s subjective interpretation of a situation (as opposed to objective reality) is directly tied to one’s actions in response to the situation.
The Thomas theorem
This theorem has implications regarding our behavior. If we believe a situation to be important (even if it is trivial or nonexistent), we may act accordingly; similarly, if we believe ourselves to be a certain way (such as a troublemaker), we may act that way.
