What is an emotion?
While an exact scientific consensus on the definition of an emotion is still lacking, it is agreed that emotions are:
- generally short-lived biological states…
- …associated with both feelings and thoughts…
- …and changes to the nervous system and physiology.
What are three differences between an emotion and a mood?
- Emotions are shorter-lasting than moods.
- Moods are typically more general (“good,” “bad,” “irritable,” etc.) than emotions (“anger,” “surprise,” etc.).
- Emotions are associated with consistent facial expressions (per Paul Ekman), while moods are not.
Name the three components of emotion.
The three components of emotion are cognitive, physiological, and behavioral.
Describe the cognitive component of emotion.
The cognitive component refers to how one interprets one’s emotion.
For example, if a relative has cancer, and cancer is scary, an individual will interpret this situation as scary and may become anxious.
Describe the physiological component of emotion.
The physiological component refers to the body’s physical reactions to emotion.
For example, anxiety over a relative’s cancer diagnosis may cause increased heart rate, sweating, and other physical signs of anxiety.
Describe the behavioral component of emotion.
The behavioral component refers to how one expresses emotion.
For instance, anxiety over a relative’s cancer diagnosis may make an individual feel the need to channel the anxious energy that results from the physiological component of emotion. The person might pace in the hallway, clean the house, etc.
Both emotion and attitude have three components. Name them.
The three components of emotion are the cognitive, physiological, and behavioral components.
The three components of attitude are the affective, behavioral, and cognitive components.
Be sure not to confuse these based on their similarities!
According to Paul Ekman, what is the definition of a universal emotion?
A universal emotion is an emotion that is experienced and expressed similarly across all human cultures.
These are not necessarily the only emotions, but their existence supports the concept that at least some emotions are biologically based.
When Paul Ekman described universal emotions as being expressed similarly across cultures, he was referring mainly to ________ expressions.
facial
Ekman’s focus of study was on facial expressions, including movements of the eyes, mouth, and other facial features.
Name the seven “universal” emotions.
Happiness, sadness, surprise, fear, joy, anger, and disgust
Note that contempt is sometimes also listed, but the AAMC does not consider this one of the seven that you should memorize.
Which of the following is not one of Ekman’s universal emotions?
- Surprise
- Embarrassment
- Fear
“Embarrassment” is not one of Ekman’s universal emotions.
However, surprise and fear are both listed among the seven universal emotions.
Which of the following is not one of Ekman’s universal emotions?
- Disgust
- Happiness
- Jealousy
“Jealousy” is not one of Ekman’s universal emotions.
However, disgust and happiness are both listed among the seven universal emotions.
Which of the following is not one of Ekman’s universal emotions?
- Annoyance
- Sadness
- Joy
“Annoyance” is not one of Ekman’s universal emotions.
However, sadness and joy are both listed among the seven universal emotions.
Which of the following is not one of Ekman’s universal emotions?
- Anger
- Guilt
- Surprise
“Guilt” is not one of Ekman’s universal emotions.
However, anger and surprise are both listed among the seven universal emotions.
True or false:
Contempt is one of Ekman’s universal emotions that you must know for the MCAT.
False
While some lists do include contempt as a universal emotion, the AAMC official outline specifically does not.
Joy and happiness are both positive emotions. Of these, ________ tends to have internal causes and be more fulfilling and long-lasting, while ________ is more temporary and is often caused by external factors.
joy, happiness
Joy tends to be more internally based and lasts longer, while happiness is often brought on by external factors and, as such, lasts a shorter duration.
The Yerkes-Dodson law describes the relationship between which two factors?
Arousal and performance
For instance, this law would explain whether a sleepy (low-arousal), awake and alert (moderate-arousal), or hyperactive (high-arousal) musician would be likely to perform best in a symphony.
True or false:
The Yerkes-Dodson law states that people perform best when they are entirely non-emotional.
False
The Yerkes-Dodson law actually states that people perform best when they are moderately emotionally stimulated. Being extremely emotional or entirely without emotion leads to inferior performance.
Identify the theory of emotion illustrated below.
A dog jumps out at you, barking and snarling. Your heart rate rises, causing you to realize that you are afraid.
The James-Lange theory of emotion
This theory states that the physiological aspects of emotion (here, increased heart rate) precede and lead to the cognitive interpretation of emotion (here, realizing that you are afraid).
Identify the theory of emotion illustrated below.
As you are walking down the street, a dog jumps out at you, barking and snarling. Your heart rate rises, and you feel scared at the same time. In response to these occurrences, you shriek.
The Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
This theory states that the physiological and cognitive aspects of emotion happen independently and simultaneously in response to the stimulus.
Identify the theory of emotion illustrated below.
You are walking down the street when a dog jumps out at you, barking and snarling. Your heart beats faster, and your breathing deepens. Upon noticing this arousal you realize that you might be bitten by this dog. Next, you experience fear and shriek.
The Schachter-Singer theory of emotion
This theory states that a physiological response is experienced first. Next, the stimulus is cognitively interpreted, context may be considered, and finally emotion follows.
Identify the theory of emotion illustrated below.
You are walking down the street when a dog jumps out at you, barking and snarling. You realize this dog may be about to bite you so you begin to tremble, your heart beats faster, your breathing deepens, and at the same time, you feel scared.
The Lazarus theory states that a thought must come before any emotion or physiological arousal. One must first think about their situation before they can experience an emotion.
This theory is less heavily tested on the MCAT than the James-Lange, Cannon-Bard, and Schachter-Singer theories, but it is still helpful to know.
Which theory of emotion was initially tested in an experiment involving the administration of epinephrine to subjects, some of whom were warned about its side effects and others of whom were not?
The Schachter-Singer theory
This description matches Schachter and Singer’s original experiment. In this experiment, participants who were warned about the side effects of epinephrine were less likely than uninformed subjects to interpret their physiological changes as emotion (such as anger). This underscores the importance of the cognitive interpretation of emotion.
According to the James-Lange theory of emotion, what must come before the perception of emotion?
A physiological response
Perhaps counterintuitively, this theory posits that an emotion is not perceived until the individual first perceives a physiological effect, such as increased heart rate.
In which (if any) theory of emotion does the cognitive perception of emotion occur prior to a physiological effect?
None of them
Of the theories of emotion to know for the MCAT, none of them posit that cognitive perception occurs before a physiological response. The physiological response either precedes or occurs simultaneously to the perception of emotion.
The limbic system, the brain area primarily associated with emotion, is composed of which three main regions?
The amygdala, the hypothalamus, and the hippocampus
Which area of the brain is primarily responsible for the emotions we feel, most notably fear?
The amygdala
Which region of the brain controls the physiological aspects of emotion, such as sympathetic or parasympathetic activation and changes in heart rate?
The hypothalamus
This region also communicates with the amygdala.
Which region of the brain is responsible for how an individual chooses to behave in response to his or her emotional experience?
The prefrontal cortex
This region deals with complex planning and decision-making, such as the conscious choice to behave in a certain fashion.
The ______ branch of the autonomic nervous system prepares the body to run or fight off any dangers perceived by the body.
sympathetic
When the sympathetic nervous system is activated, glands release epinephrine to cause an increase in heart rate and in blood flow to muscles (“fight or flight”).
The ______ branch of the autonomic nervous system prepares the body for future emotional events by conserving and storing energy.
parasympathetic
When the parasympathetic (or “rest-and-digest”) system is activated, there is an increase in gastrointestinal activity and a decrease in blood flow to skeletal muscles. This helps conserve energy to use when and where it is needed.
The production of stress hormones is associated with which branch of the autonomic nervous system?
The sympathetic branch
Activation of this branch, also known as the “fight-or-flight” system, is associated with increased production of stress hormones, such as cortisol.
_______ are a universal physiological sign of sadness, easily seen on the face of an individual.
Tears are a universal physiological sign of sadness, easily seen on the face of an individual.
True or false:
Physiological effects of emotion include high pulse rate, sweating, sympathetic hormone relase, and sympathetic changes in blood pressure.
True
_________ is a reddening of the face which can occur in response to anger. In contrast, the face may “empty” of blood and turn pale in response to the emotion of _________.
Flushing is a reddening of the face which can occur in response to anger. In contrast, the face may “empty” of blood and turn pale in response to the emotion of fear.
_______ refers to the way one interprets an event and determines how to feel and act in response.
Appraisal refers to the way one interprets an event and determines how to feel and act in response.
True or false:
Stress is always negative and unhealthy.
False
Stress may often be thought of as unhealthy, and chronic stress certainly is, but short-term, motivating stress (termed eustress) also exists, such as nervous excitement about an upcoming big game.
Angela is worried about her upcoming midterm, but she uses this stress to motivate herself to study and even becomes excited to put her hard work to use. Angela is experiencing what form of stress?
Eustress
Sometimes termed “positive stress,” eustress is short-term stress about events that we perceive to be manageable. Eustress can lead to increased motivation and performance.
Negative events such as divorce, the death of a loved one, or abuse are likely to lead to which form of stress?
Distress
Distress, sometimes referred to as “negative stress,” is stress that feels unpleasant and generally decreases motivation and performance. In contrast, eustress, or “positive stress,” generally feels exciting and motivating. While the events described here could lead to eustress in certain circumstances, they are much more likely to produce distress.
In addition to eustress and distress, a third form of stress that largely does not bother the individual is termed:
neustress.
This form of stress is essentially “neutral stress,” and it does not have noticeable positive or negative impacts on the individual. It arises from events that are mostly inconsequential.
Name and describe the two primary types of stressors.
Cataclysmic events are stressors caused by extreme circumstances. Examples include epidemics, wars, and natural disasters.
Personal events are stressors that involve significant life changes such as beginning or ending a relationship, births, deaths, job changes, and moving.
True or false:
Any amount of stress on your exam date will negatively impact your MCAT performance.
False
Mild levels of stress can actually help increase one’s psychological functions and serve to increase levels of motivation, such as when preparing for and taking the MCAT. However, too much stress can negatively impact test performance and studying.
Name the three stages of the general adaptation syndrome (GAS) model.
The three stages of the GAS model are alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.
These are the stages that individuals can progress through as they experience a stressful event.
Which stage of the general adaptation syndrome (GAS) model involves activation of the sympathetic nervous system?
The alarm stage (stage 1)
In the GAS model, this stage involves initial responses to a stressor. The sympathetic (“fight-or-flight”) nervous system becomes activated to help the body respond.
In which stage of the general adaptation syndrome model does the parasympathetic nervous system attempt to return the body to homeostasis?
The resistance stage (stage 2)
During this stage, the parasympathetic nervous system becomes activated to counter the initial reactions of the sympathetic nervous system and to return the body to normal.
Individuals who enter this stage of the general adaptation syndrome (GAS) model are likely to feel fatigued and may suffer other health effects.
The exhaustion stage (stage 3)
The final stage of the GAS model, the exhaustion stage is entered when the body no longer has the resources to combat the increased stress response. This can happen when an individual is stressed for an extended period, as in chronic stress.
Name the stage that comes after alarm according to the model of the general adaptation syndrome.
Resistance
The stages of the general adaptation syndrome are alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.
This hormone is strongly associated with a stress response in the body.
Cortisol
During stressful situations, the hypothalamus stimulates the pituitary, which then stimulates the adrenal glands to release cortisol, a hormone that causes the body to use fat as a source of energy instead of glucose.
True or false:
Cortisol acts on cells of the liver, among other targets.
True
Cortisol has widespread effects throughout the body, but one of its key targets is the liver. You should recall that the liver is the main location of gluconeogenesis, which cortisol stimulates.
Which type of hormone is cortisol?
Choose from peptide hormone, steroid hormone, or tyrosine-derived hormone.
Cortisol is a steroid hormone.
Remember, all steroid hormones end in “-ol,” “-one,” or “-en.”
While this may seem like a biology question, 5% of the P/S section of the MCAT is actually biology, and those questions are likely to involve concepts like this one: the stress response.
Which organ of the endocrine system secretes cortisol?
The adrenal cortex
This can easily be remembered due to the similarity between the word “cortisol” and the word “cortex.”
Similarly to other cards in this deck, this may seem like a biology question, but 5% of the P/S section of the MCAT consists of biology.
In the absense of major stressors, cortisol release varies throughout the day, with cortisol levels peaking soon after the individual wakes up. As such, cortisol responds to the body’s natural:
circadian rhythm.
Circadian rhythms, which are important in many aspects of psychology, are physical, psychological, or behavioral changes that vary predictably throughout the day.
What effect does the stress hormone cortisol have on blood sugar?
Cortisol increases blood sugar (or blood glucose).
Cortisol does this mainly by increasing gluconeogenesis (the production of new glucose).
Similarly to other cards in this deck, this may seem like a biology question, but 5% of the P/S section of the MCAT consists of biology.
True or false:
Chronic, excessive levels of stress can make one more susceptible to illness.
True
Chronic and sustained exposure to high cortisol levels can actually inhibit the activity of leukocytes.
True or false:
Stress can lead to behavioral changes.
True
Some choose to deal with the stressor head-on, others behave in a manner to avoid the stressor, and some turn to drugs and/or alcohol to escape.
True or false:
There is only one proper method to manage stress.
False
This is false, of course! Many methods of stress management exist. The three that are mentioned directly on the AAMC outline are exercise, relaxation, and spirituality.
Chronic ______ is believed to help relieve stress and depression by facilitating the release of serotonin, endorphins, and epinephrine.
Chronic exercise is believed to help relieve stress and depression by facilitating the release of serotonin, endorphins, and epinephrine.
Which approach to stress management posits that religion may be beneficial, primarily by providing social support and guidance during stressful events?
Spirituality
Practiced meditation is a helpful way to reduce or eliminate stress via the _______-oriented method of stress management.
relaxation
Relaxation is often used to relax muscle constriction, slow heart rate, and slow breathing. Examples of techniques that can foster relaxation include guided meditation and yoga.
True or false:
Excessive and chronic stress can lead to psychiatric disorders, including post-traumatic stress disorder, depression, and anxiety disorders.
True
Excessive stress can certainly contribute to the development or exacerbation of psychiatric disorders.
Which type of conflict exists when a person is deciding between two appealing or desirable options?
An approach-approach conflict
One example is deciding whether to go to the birthday party of one friend or the bachelor party of another, assuming of course that you want to go to both events.
Which type of conflict exists when a person is pondering a single goal or decision that has both good and bad aspects?
An approach-avoidance conflict
One example is deciding whether to move in with a significant other, which has both benefits (being able to spend more time with them, saving money, etc.) and drawbacks (decreased independence, having to deal with another person’s quirks, etc.).
Which type of conflict exists when a person is deciding between two unappealing or undesirable options?
An avoidance-avoidance conflict
One example is deciding whether to work on a dreaded project or to clean the disgusting bathroom. The person must choose the “less bad” of the two options.
Which type of conflict exists when a person is deciding between two options that each have both pros and cons?
A double approach-avoidance conflict
For instance, imagine that you are a CEO and have to choose whether to lay a few people off and still be able to give the rest of the employees raises, or to avoid laying people off (which would be better for the people who would otherwise be laid off and possibly be better for morale) but have to freeze all salaries.
Which type or types of conflict involve evaluating only one option?
The only type of conflict that involves evaluating only one option is approach-avoidance conflict.
In such situations, the individual is weighing the good and bad aspects of a single decision.
Which type(s) of conflict involve evaluating two options?
Approach-approach, avoidance-avoidance, and double approach-avoidance conflicts all involve debating between two options.
The only type of conflict that you must be familiar with that involves only one decision/option is approach-avoidance conflict.
Matt is trying to decide whether to accept a job offer. It pays better than he anticipated, but it would require a long commute. What type of conflict is Matt experiencing?
An approach-avoidance conflict
This is an easy one; since Matt is dealing only with a single decision (whether to take the job), it must be an approach-avoidance conflict!
Mary is deciding whether to retake the MCAT. She likes the idea of a chance to improve her score, but she worries about taking another month or more to study. If she chose not to retake, she could spend that time on a medical trip, which would be more fun but would be less likely to help her application than an increased MCAT score. What type of conflict is Mary experiencing?
A double approach-avoidance conflict
Here, Mary is choosing between two separate options that each have pros and cons. This complex situation exemplifies a double approach-avoidance conflict.
