This is the view of the self which arises from the collection of beliefs one holds about themselves and the treatment one receives from others.
Self-concept
This is the “who am I?” of identity. It includes gender identity, status, racial identity, etc.
This is the aspect of identity that is centered around how one feels about oneself and one’s perceived worth.
Self-esteem
Self-esteem refers to a person’s interpretation of his or her own worth or value.
This aspect of identity refers to a person’s perception of his or her ability to successfully function or complete a task.
Self-efficacy
Self-efficacy is more specific and task-focused than self-esteem. It revolves around perceived ability to succeed at specific things, rather than perceived self-worth in general.
If a pre-med believes he is a brilliant student and can handle any MCAT passage or discrete question set from chemistry, he has high ______ with regards to chemistry.
self-efficacy
This is a person’s belief in his or her ability to complete a future task or solve a future problem.
True or false:
It is impossible for an individual to have low self-esteem but high self-efficacy.
False
While self-esteem may correlate with self-efficacy, the two terms are very different. A person could feel highly competent at a given job or task (high self-efficacy) while still believing that he or she is worth little as a person (low self-esteem).
According to social identity theory, individuals form self-conceptions that are based on which two components?
- Personal or self identity - one’s unique, personal qualities such as beliefs, abilities, skills, etc.
- Collective identity - all of the qualities that arise from being part of a society (e.g. family, groups, culture, clubs, etc.)
Name at least 3 types of identity an individual can hold.
Race, ethnicity, gender, age, sexual orientation, and class are all types of identity an individual can have.
- Race/ethnicity is skin color/culture/religion (in some cases).
- Gender is self-perceived masculinity or femininity.
- Sexual orientation involves the gender(s) to which one is attracted.
- Age is how old one feels.
- Class is one’s position within the socioeconomic structure.
For example, Mike may see himself as a black, Egyptian, male, Muslim, gay, middle-class teenager.
In the context of sociology, what is the difference between sex and gender?
Sex refers to biological characteristics, such as reproductive anatomy and secondary sex characteristics.
Gender refers to the complex range of perceptions (about self and others), expectations, and attitudes typically associated with the sexes.
Those with an _________ locus of control feel in control of their own fate.
These individuals may see the MCAT as an opportunity to showcase their abilities or to work extra hard to achieve success.
Those with an internal locus of control feel in control of their own fate.
People who believe that they control their own destiny and that their behaviors are under their control have an internal locus of control.
Those with an _________ locus of control tend to attribute the events of their lives to outside forces.
These individuals are likely to see the MCAT as an unfair or insurmountable obstacle, and they may view a low test score as “society,” their personal circumstances, or bad luck keeping them from becoming a physician.
Those with an external locus of control tend to attribute the events of their lives to outside forces.
A person with an external locus of control is more likely to believe that his or her fate is determined by chance or outside forces that are beyond personal control.
A college student who performs well on an MCAT full-length exam firmly believes that her high score was due to good luck. She is exhibiting which locus of control?
An external locus of control
Regardless of whether a person’s performance was good or bad, attributing that performance to outside factors (including luck) exemplifies an external locus of control.
A sense of powerlessness after many failed attempts to avoid an adverse stimulus or make a change is termed:
learned helplessness.
Learned helplessness is common in those with an external locus of control.
Which individual developed a theory stating that identity is formed in part via the development of moral reasoning?
Moral reasoning relates to the use of cognition to resolve problems, learn right and wrong, and then act accordingly.
Lawrence Kohlberg
Kohlberg’s work is an adaptation of the work of Piaget to help explain ethical behavior in humans. Kohlberg based his stages on the idea that moral judgment progresses with age and is focused on justice.
Kohlberg’s theory of moral development includes ____ stages spread between ____ levels.
Note that the answers to this card should be numbers.
Kohlberg’s theory of moral development includes six stages spread between three levels.
These stages are spread evenly, with two stages per level.
Name the three levels of Kohlberg’s theory of moral development.
The three levels of Kohlberg’s theory are, in order from earliest to latest:
- Preconventional
- Conventional
- Postconventional
A 35-year-old adult would be expected to be at which level of Kohlberg’s theory of moral development?
Conventional or postconventional morality
Importantly, we can’t know for certain which of these two levels the adult will exemplify, as many individuals are thought never to reach postconventional morality and thus spend their adult lives at the conventional level.
Describe the two stages included in the preconventional level of Kohlberg’s theory of moral development.
Obedience and punishment (infancy): behavior is motivated solely by fear of punishment.
Self-interest (age 3-4): behavior is motivated more by the desire to be rewarded.
Identify Kohlberg’s level of moral reasoning exemplified by the situation below.
A subject is observed stealing cookies from a jar. She is told that this is immoral, but she continues stealing until she is punished by the researchers.
Preconventional morality
This level is based upon consequences, with no perceived difference between doing the “right” thing and avoiding punishment or earning a reward. It is the first of Kohlberg’s levels.
Describe the two stages included in the conventional level of Kohlberg’s theory of moral development.
Conformity: the person acts to keep the approval of others and avoid disapproval (e.g. “good little boys don’t lie”).
Law and order: the person acts to maintain social order (e.g. “if we all lie, then society falls apart”).
Identify Kohlberg’s level of moral reasoning exemplified by the situation below.
A boy does not steal from his classmates’ lunches because he wants to keep his friends. The teacher tells them that if everyone stole lunches, no one could eat what they brought from home, and the boy nods.
Conventional morality
Here, the driver of morality is social roles. The boy avoids stealing because he wants to continue to earn social approval (conformity) and may be progressing to the next stage within conventional morality (law and order).
Name the two stages included in the postconventional level of Kohlberg’s theory of moral development.
Social contract: behavior is motivated by mutual benefit and reciprocity of individual rights (e.g. “we all have a right to live”).
Universal human ethics: behavior is motivated by abstract principles and nuanced thinking. Morals now transcend mutual benefit.
Identify Kohlberg’s level of moral reasoning exemplified by the situation below.
A student has the opportunity to be falsely diagnosed with attention-deficit disorder in order to abuse drugs for studying purposes. He decides that doing this “just feels wrong” because it breaks the unspoken contract he has made with his fellow students and teachers.
Postconventional morality
Here, the driver of moral behavior is the concept of the social contract as well as one’s own ethical principles. It has been proposed that many individuals never reach this level.
This group of theories of identity formation posits that the primary influencer of our psychological development is our sexuality and our libido.
Psychosexual theories
These theories were proposed by Freud. They posit that our sexuality and libido (sex drive) influence our psychology and manifest differently as we develop. According to Freud, overindulgence or frustration (fixation) during a particular stage causes problems later in life.
Note that many of Freud’s theories have been discredited or revised, but they are still important to understand for the MCAT, as they formed much of the early basis for modern psychology.
Place the following stages of Freudian psychosexual development in the correct order.
- Oral
- Genital
- Phallic
- Anal
- Latency
- Oral stage (0-1 years)
- Anal stage (1-3 years)
- Phallic stage (3-5 years)
- Latency stage (6 years-puberty)
- Genital stage (puberty through adulthood)
In Freud’s stages of psychosexual development, a 6-month-old infant would be in which stage?
The oral stage (0-1 years)
Individuals in this stage like to feel oral sensations (i.e. sucking, biting, and/or putting things in the mouth). According to Freud, unresolved conflict at this stage leads to excessive dependency later in life.
Name and describe the stage that falls between the oral and phallic stages in Freud’s theory of psychosexual development.
The anal stage (1-3 years)
Individuals in this stage like to feel anal sensations, for example defecating. Fixation can lead to either excessive orderliness (e.g. “anal-retentiveness”) or sloppiness later on.
Name the third stage of Freud’s theory of psychosexual development and the two conflicts that can occur during this stage.
The third stage is the phallic stage (3-5 years). The two conflicts that can occur during this stage are the Oedipal conflict and the Electra conflict.
According to Freud, boys at this stage love their mothers and envy their fathers (the Oedipal conflict) while girls love their fathers and envy their mothers (the Electra conflict). To resolve these conflicts, the child identifies with the same-sex parent and focuses energy on other things (e.g. sports, school, music, etc.).
In Freud’s stages of psychosexual development, a 9-year-old girl would be in which stage?
The latency stage (6 years old-puberty)
This stage, the fourth of Freud’s stages, is reached once the individual is able to resolve the Oedipal or Electra conflict.
The fifth and final stage of Freudian psychosexual development is:
the genital stage (puberty through adulthood).
At this point, the individual may enter heterosexual relationships. Sexual traumas in earlier stages lead to homosexuality, asexuality, or fetishism (according to Freud).
Again, please note that Freud’s theories are largely considered flawed in modern times. They are studied more for their critical role in early psychology than for their factual accuracy.
Name the psychologist who proposed an eight-stage model of psychosocial development based on a series of inner conflicts.
Erik Erikson
Erikson posited that social interactions shape individual psychology. In his eight-stage model, conflicts caused by social demands lead to problems later in life if unresolved.
Identify the missing stage of Erikson’s stages of pyschosocial development.
Trust vs. mistrust
This is the first stage of Erikson’s model. It takes place in early infancy, from birth to approximately 18 months. If not successfully resolved, it can lead to mistrust and suspicion.
Identify the missing stage of Erikson’s stages of pyschosocial development.
Autonomy vs. shame/doubt
This second stage of Erikson’s model occurs in late infancy and toddlerhood. Those who fail to successfully resolve this stage may suffer from low self-esteem and doubt regarding their abilities.
Identify the missing stage of Erikson’s stages of pyschosocial development.
Initiative vs. guilt
This stage (stage 3) occurs from approximately ages 3 to 6. Failure to resolve this conflict can cause feelings of guilt or shame along with a reduced sense of self-purpose.
Identify the missing stage of Erikson’s stages of pyschosocial development.
Industry vs. inferiority
This stage (stage 4) occurs from approximately ages 6 to 12 years. The increased exposure to peers during these elementary-school years leads to this conflict; if it is not resolved, the individual may feel inferior and inadequate in comparison.
Identify the missing stage of Erikson’s stages of pyschosocial development.
Identity vs. role confusion
This stage (stage 5) occurs during the teenage years. Lack of resolution of this stage can cause the individual to feel unsure of his or her place in society.
Identify the missing stage of Erikson’s stages of pyschosocial development.
Intimacy vs. isolation
This stage (stage 6) spans much of adulthood (from around age 19 to age 40, although sources vary slightly regarding the exact ages). Individuals who do not successfully resolve this conflict tend to experience loneliness and a sense of separation from others.
Identify the missing stage of Erikson’s stages of pyschosocial development.
Generativity vs. stagnation
This stage (stage 7) occurs from around ages 40 to 65. If individuals fail to successfully resolve this stage, they may feel unproductive and disconnected from society.
Identify the missing stage of Erikson’s stages of pyschosocial development.
Integrity vs. despair
This is the final stage of Erikson’s model, taking place from approximately age 65 onward. If not successfully resolved, it can lead to a sense of hopelessness.
Identify the identity-forming influence illustrated below.
A nephew looks up to and emulates an uncle who, as a successful lawyer, dresses in suits and ties and speaks in long, flowery sentences. The nephew begins to try to dress and speak similarly.
Imitation
We often imitate or take on aspects of the identity of the people around us (e.g. role models, peers, relatives).
This identity concept is based on the belief that human behaviors and interactions stem from conformity to other people’s beliefs and perceptions. For example, adolescents can be strongly influenced by their peers and will go beyond simply conforming and actually change their self-image to match.
Looking-glass self
This theory posits that the self grows out of one’s own social interactions and from the perceptions of others. As such, a person’s self-concept is based on beliefs and feelings about how others feel about him or her.
This identity formation concept is based on an individual pretending to adopt or experimenting with other identities.
For example, a young girl may play at being a mother with her dolls.
Role-taking (aka social perspective taking)
This concept posits that a crucial factor in facilitating social cognition in children is their developing ability to understand others’ feelings and perspectives, an ability that emerges as a result of general cognitive growth. This can take the form of role-playing or role-taking.
Define:
a reference group
A reference group is any group to which an individual is compared.
This includes groups that the individual is compared with by others (for example, parents) as well as groups to which the individual compares himself or herself.
Many pre-meds utilize online forums to plan their studies. If a pre-med compares all of her study progress and FL scores to this online group in order to judge her own capability as a student, then the online community is serving as a ____________.
reference group
These are who we compare ourselves to or who others compare us to. If your reference group is very high-achieving or successful, you will demand more of yourself. However, if your reference group is average or below average, you may be satisfied with less success.
According to George Herbert Mead, the self is composed of which two parts?
The “I” and the “me”
Among Mead’s many other contributions to psychology, the idea of the “I” and the “me” helped clarify how individual beliefs and desires interplay with social influences.
According to Mead, this aspect of the self is autonomous, possesses its own initiative, and arose independently from the influence of other people or society.
The “I”
The”‘I” allows the individual to work creatively, uniquely, and independently. The “I” isn’t entirely separate from society; rather, it arose separately (as part of the individual’s unique self) and allows him or her to respond to the “me” (the socially-formed part of the self).
According to George Mead, this aspect of the self arose from and is illustrated by social and cultural influences.
The “me”
This is the self that arises in relation to a specific generalized other (e.g. society). Somewhat similarly to Freud’s superego, the “me” constrains the “I” and keeps the individual operating within social norms.
In addition to proposing the concept of the “I” and the “me,” George Herbert Mead was a founder of which sociological perspective?
Symbolic interactionism
The details of this functional approach are covered in much more depth in the MCAT Sociology flashcards. However, when dealing with the relatively few psychologists you should know for the MCAT, it can be very helpful to think about their body of work as a whole, rather than focusing on (for example) only the psychology aspects when studying psychology.
Name the effect illustrated by the example below.
Researchers were hired to examine the relationship between light intensity and worker productivity in a factory. Near the conclusion of the study, the researchers found that productivity improved not from the lighting inside the factory, but from the attention the workers received from the researchers.
The Hawthorne effect (aka subject reactivity) is any changes in behavior resulting from the attention study participants (perceive they) are getting from researchers, and not the independent variable(s) manipulated by the researchers.
