______ are unlearned, innate behaviors present in animals, such as the urge to procreate and preening.
Instincts
Instincts are fixed, or hard-wired. While humans do have instincts (such as a fear of snakes), instincts are generally discussed in the context of non-human animals.
Stimulation of the brain for the purposes of motivation will strive to maximize:
arousal.
The search for arousal by humans is often driven by the desire to avoid boredom.
Psychologist Abraham Maslow argued that humans no longer have instincts because we have the ability to override them. Maslow argued that what is called instinct is often just strong:
drives.
Drives are characterized by a sense of urgency as a result of feelings of discomfort, including thirst, hunger, or fatigue.
Drives are thought to exist to ensure that our body returns to ________ when disturbed.
homeostasis
Homeostasis refers to a state of internal stability with regard to physiological parameters. This ties into drive theory, in that we feel drives (such as hunger or thirst) when our homeostasis has been disrupted.
Which type of drive is innate and biologically-based?
This category includes fundamental drives such as thirst, hunger, a desire for sex, and the need to avoid or protect oneself from extreme temperatures.
Primary drives
Primary drives are fundamental and biologically-based; in other words, they don’t require any meaningful amount of learning to develop.
Which type of drive is relatively complex and is typically learned?
For example, this category includes the drive to attain prestige or a well-respected socioeconomic position.
Secondary drives
These typically develop due to learning that ties them to more basic primary drives. For example, a person may learn early in life that those with wealth or prestigious careers tend to be fed, have shelter, and acquire sexual partners more easily than those without.
Needs are often included when discussing drive and motivation. Maslow argued for the existence of the high-level need for ________, or the realization of one’s full potential.
self-actualization
Name at least three biological motivators for behavior.
- Hunger
- Thirst
- Sexual reproduction
- Need for a healthy body temperature
- Addiction
_______ motivators are elements/factors within our environment that drive certain behaviors, such as dress and diet.
Psychosocial or Cultural
These motivators may be social constructs, such as the dress, diet, and appearance “expected” of women by the culture in which they live. For example, predominately Muslim countries may expect women to cover varying degrees of their bodies to show modesty.
Identify the motivational theory illustrated in the example below.
“My eyes hurt, I feel exhausted, and I can’t think straight, so I will go to sleep.”
Drive reduction theory
This theory posits that physiological discomfort will cause one to behave in a specific manner to relieve that discomfort.
This theory of motivation posits that one’s behavior is a result of both his or her expectation of success at certain tasks and the amount of importance assigned to those tasks.
Expectancy-value theory
Here, “expectancy” refers to the anticipation of success or failure at a task, while “value” refers to how important one believes that task to be.
According to expectancy-value theory, people are least motivated to engage in an activity when they have a [low/high] perceived chance of success and believe the activity [is/is not] important.
Choose one term from each box above to correctly complete the sentence.
According to expectancy-value theory, people are least motivated to engage in an activity when they have a low perceived chance of success and believe the activity is not important.
Here, both the expectation (failure) and the value (unimportant) are associated with low motivation.
True or false:
According to expectancy-value theory, in order for a person to be motivated to complete an activity, that person must expect to succeed at the activity.
False
Expectancy-value theory has two components: expectancy (or expectation) and value. Even if expectations are low (that is, the person expects failure), he or she will still be motivated if the activity is considered sufficiently valuable.
Identify the motivational theory illustrated in the example below.
Some MCAT students use customized study plans to set daily, weekly, and monthly goals. They can then check off each goal as it is completed, allowing them to stay motivated through the prep process.
Goal-setting theory
This theory posits that there is a connection between setting goals and task performance. By first setting and achieving small goals (leading to positive feedback), one is more likely to accomplish more difficult goals.
Identify the motivational theory illustrated in the example below.
A pre-med student studies very hard in school in order to get her best chance at becoming a physician because she wants to make her family proud.
Incentive theory posits that we are driven to behave in certain ways by incentives, i.e. things that encourage or discourage certain behaviors.
Define:
primary reinforcers
Primary reinforcers are rewards that correspond to basic, fundamental biological needs.
The concept of primary and secondary reinforcers is relevant to both drive reduction theory (hence the similarity to primary and secondary drives) and the incentive theory of motivation.
Define:
secondary reinforcers
Secondary reinforcers are rewards that correspond to more complex concepts than simple physiological needs.
Examples of secondary reinforcers include money, praise, and the respect of peers.
To an extremely thirsty person, water is an example of what kind of reinforcer?
A primary reinforcer
Since thirst is a primary (or biologically-based drive), water is a primary reinforcer. Other primary reinforcers include food, shelter, and sex.
Describe the difference between a secondary drive and a secondary reinforcer.
Drives refer to senses of urgency that we are “driven” to reduce, while reinforcers are rewards that we seek to reduce those drives.
This applies to both primary and secondary drives. For instance, secondary drives are senses of urgency that are relatively complex and generally learned, while secondary reinforcers (for example, money) are rewards we seek to fulfill that sense of urgency.
Desperate parents at their wits’ end with their stubborn child decide to pay him for every passing grade he receives. If the child then starts to do well at school, he can be said to be ________ motivated to complete schoolwork.
extrinsically
Extrinsic motivation refers to motivation to complete a task that stems from rewards. These rewards are often money (as in this example) but can also be less concrete, such as prestige or praise.
Motivation that comes when we find an activity to be rewarding in itself is termed ________ motivation.
intrinsic
For example, an amateur artist who loves to paint because she finds painting enjoyable even if she never makes any money doing it is intrinsically motivated.
True or false:
Intrinsic motivation is better than extrinsic motivation.
False
While this statement may sound very logical, it’s an oversimplification to say that either type of motivation is better than the other. After all, sometimes we need extrinsic motivation, whether to do a job we dislike to put food on the table, to get through a boring class, to lose weight, or for many other reasons.
Which theory of motivation arose from research on intrinsic motivation?
Self-determination theory
This theory views motivation through the lens of psychological needs (such as the need for autonomy) and posits that people feel a natural urge to grow and develop themselves.
According to self-determination theory, intrinsic motivation is driven by which three psychological needs?
Competence, autonomy, and relatedness
In other words, we feel motivated to engage in activities that we perceive ourselves to be competent at, that we are given some autonomy (independence) to do, and that involve interconnection with others.
Arrange Maslow’s needs from the highest to the lowest level.
- Safety needs
- Esteem needs
- Physiological needs
- Self-actualization
- Social needs
- Self-actualization
- Esteem needs
- Social needs
- Safety needs
- Physiological needs
According to Maslow’s hierarchy, an individual who has recently gotten married and feels loved by his wife and friends will move on to try to satisfy which needs?
Esteem needs
These are needs for self-esteem and the respect and recognition of others. Esteem needs fall one level higher on Maslow’s hierarchy than love and belonging needs, which this person has just satisfied.
Define:
self-actualization
Self-actualization refers to a state in which one can realize one’s full potential and find meaning outside the self.
This is the highest level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
Name the three components of attitude.
The three components of attitude are affective, behavioral, and cognitive.
You can remember these components using the acronym “ABC.”
This component of attitude comprises the beliefs and knowledge of the individual.
Cognitive component
For example, the cognitive understanding that guns are dangerous will cause people to behave carefully and/or fearfully around those with firearms.
This component of attitude involves an individual’s emotions and/or feelings that shape his or her attitude.
Affective component
For example, if you despise a co-worker, you may exhibit a negative, unfriendly attitude around them.
This component of attitude includes an individual’s actions as a result of his or her attitudes.
Behavioral component
For example, if Bill has a positive attitude towards his job, he is much more likely to behave kindly around the office and act in the most productive manner he can.
This attitude-influencing technique occurs when someone convinces someone else to perform a small favor or task in order to request larger, more complex and demanding tasks/favors later.
Foot-in-the-door technique
For example, Roger asks Peggy if he can borrow $20. Peggy says yes, and a few days later, Roger returns and asks Peggy if he can borrow $200.
The Stanford prison experiment, an investigation into the psychological effects of power, used this technique with regard to fostering certain attitudes in the participants.
Role-playing effects
Subjects were tasked with playing the role of prisoner or guard, assigning them a social script which tells them how to behave in a social situation. In the Stanford experiment, the “guards” adopted the attitude of real guards, and correspondingly behaved authoritatively towards the “prisoners.”
Raquel spends 6 months saving up for a new computer she needs to perform her job. The day after she bought it, a friend of Raquel’s gives her a like-new computer that is even more powerful than the one she purchased. Which influencing factor explains why Raquel would insist on using the inferior computer she worked for herself?
Justification of effort
Justification of effort occurs when people adjust their attitudes to match how much work, money, or energy they put into something. Raquel worked hard for the money to buy the computer, so she may feel pressured to justify all of that work by using the device she bought herself.
According to Icek Ajzen, if a child believes he should be well-behaved and quiet in the doctor’s office, he will likely be pleased to:
act quiet and well-behaved.
Icek Ajzen’s theory of planned behavior posits that behavioral beliefs influence attitude towards the behavior, which then affects how an individual behaves.
A medical student who continues to smoke to relieve stress, despite his extensive knowledge of how dangerous smoking is for his health, is most likely experiencing this attitude-related phenomenon.
Cognitive dissonance
This is the idea that people will experience discomfort if they hold two conflicting attitudes or if their attitudes contradict their behaviors.
True or false:
It is extremely difficult for an individual to live with cognitive dissonance for a long period of time.
True
This extreme difficulty is a fundamental part of cognitive dissonance. Individuals typically modify either their behaviors or their attitudes to relieve the dissonance.
Those with an _________ locus of control feel in control of their own fates and may see as high score on the MCAT as an opportunity to showcase their abilities.
internal
Those who believe that they control their own destiny and that their behaviors are under their control have an internal locus of control.
Those with an _________ locus of control are more likely to see the MCAT as an unfair obstacle and may view a low test score as “society” keeping them from becoming a physician.
external
A person with an external locus of control is more likely to believe that his or her fate is determined by chance or outside forces that are beyond personal control.
Those with external loci of control may experience ___________, where they feel after many failed attempts to make a change, that the only option is to give up and accept their circumstances.
learned helplessness
This phenomenon occurs when individuals are repeatedly prevented from avoiding some aversive stimulus. Eventually they will reach a state in which they believe that there are no actions they can take to avoid the aversive stimulus.
